Національна Академія Мистецтв України Інститут культурології

The very absence of explicit author’s voice with the arbiter’s disinterestedness in drama entails paradoxical consequence of the disappearance of neutral distance in presenting the matter of narration that is such important for epics. All characters are interested in the events presented at the stage; they participate in the development of action, so that the neutral tone vanishes. Accordingly participation dominates in dramatic as well as in lyrical text with the difference that it is the author’s incognito of lyrical poem that takes part in the presented action. Dramatic speech can be said to remove indefiniteness of location & localization together with the replacement of author’s voice (as an incognito too). In this respect drama is opposed to improper direct speech with its effect of ambiguity and not to epic narration. At the same time this device comes from dramatic soliloquy so that it goes about the inner contradictions proper for dramatic genus.

It is already the confessional verve that implies ironical paradoxical mood of exposing the intimacy of mysteries. The contradiction of explicit vs. implicit imparts here irony disclosing the lyrical nature of the device in question (whereas it is that of intention vs. action that displays irony of dramatic direct speech). It is to stress that still of a more important for the lyrical origin of the device would be the implied references of location always transgressing the actual textual borders and involving the experience of the necessary presupposition.

One could point to the lyrical species of the already discussed dramatic poem where the device of improper direct speech has gained intensive development due to its irony. It is already lyrical monologues that can be suspected of being split into different persons’ utterances with discernible locations due to the lack of alternative voices of other dramatic personae as in a dramatic work. Such effects of indefinite location are often to encounter for instance in A. Tennyson’s requiem “In memoriam”: there is no certitude that the word “calm” that initiates every strophe of the verse N. 11 is to be ascribed to the same person while there are also grounds to conceive the verse in the manner of baroque declamation where this motif is debated from different viewpoints; in the verse N. 7 the statement in the 1st strophe “I stand / here in the long unlovely street” and the confession “I creep / at earliest morning to the door” are retorted in the 3d strophe with “He is not here” obviously betraying the shift of location so that the man that uttered the precedent words becomes now the third person. Thus the problem of the author’s identity arises, and it entails the consequences concerning the idiomatic shift of meaning. In particular almost each lyrical poem can be recited in the mentioned “declamatory” baroque manner so that lines would be distributed among different voices and respectively conceived as the utterances of different persons. Together with such differentiation of utterances it is still to bear in mind the constant shifts of supposed addressees.

The importance of the improper direct speech is to be stressed especially due to the circumstance that just here lyrics and drama intermingle and interact. The appearance of this special manner of narration, which was not being encountered before the epoch of Sentimentalism, became one of the consequences of the creative program of this style, although there were attempts to treat it more universally. As to the characteristics of these phenomena it is worth mentioning M.M. Bakhtin’s attempt of introducing the concept of “speech discrepancy” when “the division of voices and languages is passed to the limits of one syntactic whole, so that often even one and the same word belongs simultaneously to two languages”⁹²⁵. As a paragon here Ch. Dickens’ novel “Little Dorrit” serves where for instance the underlined phrases imparting irony may be regarded as insertions of a stranger’s voice. Such are especially the utterances concerning Merdle: “It began to be widely understood that one who had done Society the admirable service of making so much money out of it could not be suffered to remain a commonner” (Book 2, Chapter 24, § 1); “All people … prostrated themselves before him, more degradedly and less excusably than the darkest savage …” (B.2, Ch. 12, 1). In the last quotation namely the two voices are felt, the first being neutral and purely informative and the second (underlined) evaluative⁹²⁶.

The most essential feature of the phenomenon has been detected and defined as the interference of voices of different direct speeches, and it enables tracing its connection with romantic aesthetic programs⁹²⁷. This effect of interference is especially observable in lyrical songs where the existence of musical substance enables disguising alien voices as the insertions in one’s own confession. As an example one can take F. Schubert’s song “The Rain of Tears” (to W. Müller’s verse) cited by A. V. Vasina – Grossmann: <… sie sprach: “Es kommt ein Regen, ade, ich geh nach Haus”> [Васина-Гроссман, 1966, 110]. Although here the direct speech is used it becomes confluent with the narrator’s speech due to uniting melodic structure so that the case can be in a way reverse to improper direct speech where alien voice looks like a latent quotation. It is important to remark that in the places of interference prosaic and versified segments loose their capacity of being discernible. It gives grounds for more general interpretation of such places as the moments of disruption, of discontinuity of speech where semantic incoherence reveals itself. It these places that encourage derivative process of the generation of new meanings and semantic transition. The historically similar phenomenon of interference can be found already in that cultivating of the baroque internal monologue, whose echoes are imprinted in the conversations of hero with themselves in “Robinson Crusoe” of D. Defoe; however, there the statements belonging to different voices are outspoken distinct.

The first attempts to build phrase from “the discordance” are outlined with the passage from the baroque to the rococo in connection with the psychological kind of narration, in particular, in the so-called “precious” style of the epistolary genre. For instance in the letter of de Sevigne to count Guiteau 5.04.1680 the account of the content of one theological treatise where that the author “teaches us that that which is called good, good it is not” is combined in one sentence with the reasoning about “the end being the purpose of all our aspirations”, so that the writer simultaneously supports the treatise cited and distances herself from it, i.e., it already completely distinctly demonstrates interference tendencies toward the mixing of voices. This is the striking contrast with the letters of Petrarch who “does never climb into the soul” of those, whose thoughts he presents. However, the game with the concealed quoting of the separate phrases of a sentence and their representation as those of discordant voices belongs entirely to the epoch of sentimentalism. Very distinctly this is to be seen in the works of L. Sterne, where instead of the personified passions in the baroque manner with its preference for soliloquy and personified passions “the voices” of diverse moods come to stage under the leadership of the „ruling passion”⁹²⁸. The same concerns Eastern European literatures of the epoch where considerable lexical modifications become observable in comparison to the situation of the time of Enlightenment⁹²⁹.

The perfect realization and the preponderated purport of such speech composition is attested in a remarkable advice contained in the novel in epistles “Les Liaison dangereuses” by Choderlos de Laclos in the ending of the 105-th epistle (from La marquise de Merteuil to Cecile Volanges) where the process of the seduction of heroine achieves its culmination: «Vous écrivez toujours comme un enfant … vous dites tout ce que vous pensez et rien de ce que vous ne pensez pas» ‘you write still as a child … you say all you think and nothing about what you don’t think’. Meanwhile romanticism demanded that the author would write what he or she “doesn’t think” and to what doesn’t agree but what could be included in the author’s enunciation. Another specimen of the epoch may supply N. Karamzin’s “Letters of a Russian Traveler” (Chapter “Geneve”) where an illustrious example of the narrative on the conversation with the local men of letters is included: «В этой беседке, – говорит Боннет, – сочинял я предисловие … На чистом воздухе мысли мои были свежее. – Часы или минуты сочинения – те минуты, в которые душа его, божественным огнем согретая, предается быстрому стремлению мыслей и чувств, – называет он счастливейшими… Багзен уверял, что он никогда уже не будет писать стихами…, потому что сей род сочинений есть совсем неестественный и мешает чувствам изливаться во всей их полноте и свободе». (In this pergola, – Bonnet says, – I wrote the preface … My thoughts were fresher in the open air. – Hours or minutes of creative work – the minutes when his soul being heated with the divine fire gives itself towards the swift flow of thoughts and feelings, – he calls the happiest … Baggesen assured that he nevermore would write verses … because this kind of writing is perfectly unnatural and hinders to flow feelings out in all their completeness and liberty). One can trace here immediate transition from direct speech to oblique speech (testified with respective pronouns) as well as the combination of the proper author’s exposition with the quoted passages of partners’ speech: for instance one finds in these latent quotations the translated loan of the German sentimentalist phraseology (Ausfluss der Gefühle, Fülle der Gefühle). The sentimental phraseology’s origin belongs also to the mention of divine fire that heats soul.

A similar phenomenon is to be observed in the “Notes” (“Записки”) of countess Dashkova (Ch. 9), where it goes on Mirovich’s conspiracy: «… если я была совершенно оправдана, то конечно обязана тем отвратительному портрету Мировича, в котором представил его Панин: ибо в человеке без всякого воспитания, надменным своим невежеством и не способным даже оценить последствий своего предприятия, трудно ей было не узнать разительную характеристику Григория Орлова». (If I am justified and excused, then of course I am obliged to the ugly portrait of Mirovich as he was represented by Panin: since in the man without any education, haughty with his ignorance and not capable of even estimating the consequences of his enterprise, it was difficult not to recognize the striking characteristic of Grigoriy Orlov). It is evident that the mentioned “разительная характеристика” (underlined in the quotation) belongs to Panin and becomes here a latent quotation, though these words are not separated from the author’s proper utterance.

It is obvious that the mentioned interference of improper direct speech coincides with the properties of irony as one of the basic romantic categories. The very concept of irony in romanticism has been inherited from the ancient legacy together with allegory as the generalized tropes. The peculiarity of irony was that here «the ironically used words can both affirm and deny what they state», so that «irony surfaces as that which violates (while reaffirming at the background) the principle of tertium non datur» [Finlay, 20]. As a result «irony is based on a variability of presuppositions» [Finlay, 36]. In other words the whole world outlook of the persons is involved, the consequence being that «irony is conceived … as a distantiation not only of the subject of enunciation from the enunciated object, but as a constant substitution of subjects of enunciation for one another. Irony is a “décalage” between an authorial, a narrator’s and a person’s voices» [Finlay, 54]. The same effect we find in the improper direct speech. An author reserves for himself the opportunity to refuse the utterance of the other persons, and as a result the “places of indefiniteness” (R. Ingarden) arise that is those equivocal expressions that are comprehended differently according to the persons to whom they are ascribed. Of importance is that the insertions imparting irony to the whole have the outlook of improper direct speech.

The experience of romantic irony is interesting not only as the origin of latent quotations but also as the intermediate transitional stage towards critical realism with respective devices of portrayal of the heroes of literature. Here the general principles of romantic aesthetics reveal themselves in particular poetical peculiarities of a text. In this respect realistic social criticism can be seen not confront with romanticism but evidently continue its attitudes. One would put stress just upon criticism in the collocation “critical realism”. Realism has developed from romantic rejection and non-acceptance of the actual state of world, as the “bitterness” of truth present earlier in grotesque and irony. This “bitterness” serves to the romantic purification, catharsis. In particular it goes about the rise and development of the person of “little man” that demands the acknowledgement of human rights instead of sentimental compassion. This character inherited also the traits of previous “noble brigands” as well as of melodramatic victims. The importance of the newly invented device of improper direct speech is that of the opportunities to represent social dialects and therefore to give vivid portrayal of characters.

The romantic characterology that reflects general attitude as to the non-acceptance of reality and failure of the reconciliation with the state of affairs represents “person from the bottoms” no longer as “visual aid” for the study of passions. Romantic rebelliousness demands representation of those protesting against the conciliatoriness in their complete realistic portrayal, in particular, with all the originality of their idiolects. Such connection between protestant attitude of romantic irony with the tasks of realistic representation of characters is attested in particular in the creative work of N. S. Leskov, famous for the whole portrait galleries of “the insurgents” and “the cranks”, that didn’t pass to the “places in the life” reserved for them. The discordance of the voices of romantic irony turns around by the disorder of reality itself, with which are now discordant the voices of “small people”⁹³⁰. As if disputing against the above quoted Chauderlo de Laclos’ enunciation N.S. Leskov has noted in one place (“The Improvisors”, 2, after the anecdotic case, connected with the perception of theatrical play by the inappropriate public) that «надо сочинять …, чтобы было в их вкусе – с дымком и грязью, даже, пожалуй, с дуринкой». ‘it is necessary to write… so that it would be in their taste - with smoke and mud, even, perhaps, with the folly’. The most important circumstance promoting the development of the devices of improper direct speech at Leskov was his interpretation of a tale’s manner of narration that met the demands of realistic criticism with its bitterness of truth. It is irony that has become the “missing link” between romanticism and realism especially in the form of “grotesque realism” (M.M. Bakhtin), and it is tale where the favorable conditions for the development of irony and improper direct speech arise⁹³¹.

One can observe the perfectly diverse manners of utterance organically mastered by writer and integrated by into his own text, as in the sample of the final sentence in novel «Полунощники» (The Midnighters): «… когда мне случается возвращаться по купеческим улицам и видеть теплящиеся в их домах разноцветные лампады, я уже не воображаю себе там одних бесстыжих притворщиц и робких и безнадежных плакс “темного царства”, а мне сдается, будто там уже дышит бодрый дух Клавдиньки, дающий ресурс к жизни во всяком положении…» ‘when it occurs to me to return along the merchant streets and to see many-colored lamps glimmering in their houses, I do no longer imagine there some shameless hypocrites and timid and hopeless cry-babies from the “dark kingdom”, but it seems to me, as if there breathes already the cheerful spirit of Klavdinka, which gives resource to life in any position’. It is already in the cited fragment that the sentence has at least two hidden quotations from the typical publicity’s phraseology, which concern “dark kingdom”, and a peculiar common colloquial parlance “resource to the life”.

One notices at Leskov as a romantic stylistic marker «прием необычных словесных сочетаний …, который был удачно назван “бестужевскими каплями”» [Троицкий, 1988, 159] ‘the device of unusual verbal combinations…, which was successfully called Bestuzhev’s drops’– and which, be it added, comes back to the already mentioned Sterne’s ambiguities. Actually it goes about the mentioned insertions that not only impart fragmentation to the text (together with irony) but also introduce and attest the presence of otherness. Such “Bestuzhev’s drops” are located precisely in the places for the improper-direct speech where the mentioned interference of voices gives especially great possibilities for expanding the conceptual volume due to the stratification of the figurative senses. It results in essential shifts within the structure of images. For example, while beginning the short story “Administrative Grace” with the description of a resort’s way of life where «не уйти от гримас и болячек» ‘one can’t leave the grimaces and the sores’ of the society and mentioning «тревог и смущения … среди тамошних генеральш» ‘anxieties and confusion… among local wives of generals’ the writer calls «“тамошних мальчиков”» ‘local boys’ as the source of such uneasiness - the expression put by him in brackets and accompanied with the explanation: «Так зовут одни из них своих сыночков, другие племянников, достаточно сомнительной марки, а третьи просто жоли - гарсонов, при взгляде на мощные плечи которых начинают согреваться пламенем былых страстей их увядшие сердца и потухшие взоры» ‘So call some of them their sons, the others call their nephews of a sufficiently doubtful stamp, and the third call thus simply les jolies-garçons, with a glimpse on powerful arms of which begin to be warmed by the flame of the past passions their faded hearts and extinct looks’. The last phrase is a typical commonplace of the “cruel romances”, and the preceding portrayal of “nephews” by word combination about “dubious stamp” cites the model of the talks of business environment.

Besides, the coupled combinations from the initial phrases are typical examples of the situational synonyms’ bifurcations (hendiadys) and reproduce the style of the elevated Old Slavonic narration. Thus it is already the two initial sentences where in author's text are included the models of at least three different social dialects that mark the separated special figurative locution. Let it be noted here that the application of situational synonymy in the concealed quotations is in general a device that is used by the writer quite frequently. Thus, in “The Winter Day” (1) it is noted about the mistress that «на лице ее отпечатлелось слишком много заботливости и искательности» ‘on her face lots of care and inquietude have been imprinted’. Further in the portrayal of the person brackets are used attesting thus quotation: «это “сосуд”, сформованный “в честь” и служащий ныне “сосудом в поношение”». In the same manner one encounters the devices of hendiadys in «Соборяне» ‘The Folk of the Priesthood’s Congregation’ (Part 4, Chapter 5): «… вальяжная Мордоконаки осчастливила собрание, и при ней все как бы померкло и омизерилось… Бизюкина смялась в ее присутствии» ‘the haughty Mordonaki has made the congregation happy (with her arrival) so that all has got dimmer and miserable around her … Ms. Bisiukina has got crumpled within her presence’. Here the situational synonymous row «померкнуть – омизериться – смяться» ‘to get dimmer – miserable - crumpled’ is generated with the reproduction and representation of the cited social dialect.

It is worth mentioning also that hendiadys is widely used in the English literature in the situations of the kind, moreover, connection with the traditional means of the phraseology of paired word combinations that are attested very often. Thus it is at J. Austin’s “Mansfield Park” (chapter 30) where Price’s impressions are transferred through Crawford’s meditations in the form iff improper-direct speech: «What could be more encouraging to a man who had her love in view? Then, her understanding was beyond every suspicion, quick and clear, and her manners were the mirror of her own modest and elegant mind». A delicate device of a light awkwardness in speech becomes in this passage also the indication of a latent quotation of the stranger’s speech: «Henry Crawford had too much sense not to feel the worth of good principles in a wife, though he was too little accustomed to serious reflection …».

To return to Leskov, one can exemplify the mentioned device of the “drops” of alien reproduced speech with the latent quotation of the voice of «общественного мнения» ‘public opinion’ cited where in the description of the event it is said that “тетя Полли” ‘aunt Polly’ (“The Vale”, 2) in the year of famine «завела такое баловство, что… все у нее наедались» ‘has such a richness arranged that all at hers could have eaten to satiety’. The similar “Bestuzhev’s drops” shine also in the novel “To nowhere” (part 2, chapter 3) where in Switzerland Maria Mikhaylovna, the mother of Reiner, after having contemplated the guest from Russia in the latter episode of his life (before her son’s departure and perdition) «любовалась стройною фигурой сына и чувствовала, что он скоро будет хорош тою прелестною красотою, которая долго остается в памяти» ‘admired the slender figure of her son and felt, that he would be soon good by that charming beauty, which for long remains in the memory’. In the given case the author’s voice reproduces the style of the same expressions that have been just used by her in the conversation, moreover, she mentions in the direct speech: «… я желала бы, чтобы мой Вася походил на него» ‘I’d like that my Vasya would become like him’. And further (P. 3, Ch. 15) when Rainer makes for a trip instead Agatha to the polish insurgents towards his loss and «сердце его было полно жалости к несчастной девушке и презрения к людям, желавшим сунуть ее куда попало» ‘his heart was filled with pity for an unhappy girl and of despise against those ready to shove her anywhere’, it is the last expression of indignation in the author’s speech that actually must reproduce Rainrer’s proper words.

The abundance of the devices of the kind makes up one of the peculiar feature of “The Lady and the Gawk” («Дама и фефела»). Here in the conclusion of the biography of Prasha (Ch. 21) who has encountered the Finnish eremite Abel a transition from the direct speech through the bracketed quotation to the latent quotation is clearly observable: «- Для чего вы на другую сторону все смотрите? / Авель понял, как хотел, и отвечал: - И ты так смотри на другую сторону. И Праше понравилось, что Авель говорит о небесном как смотреть “на другую сторону жизни”. Ей стало приятно смотреть, как чухонский лохматый Авель старается услышать слухом неслышимое и заглянуть на сторону невидимую…». ‘What for dost thou look at the other side? Abel had understood it as he wanted and replied: - And thou also dost look at the other side. And it pleased Prasha that Abel told on the celestial things as “to look at the other side of life”. It has become pleasant for her to look how this Finnish shaggy Abel tries to hear something inaudible and to have a glimpse at the invisible side’.

The device of improper - direct speech elaborated in romanticism has won an active continuation in the ХХ century when they have become one of the sources (together with the Baroque soliloquy) for “the stream of consciousness” and inner monologues that played an enormous role in the so called conversational novels built on the base of discussion according to the model of “the new drama” (Th. Mann’s “Zauberberg”, A. Hucksley’s “Crome Yellow”). At the same the device was being developed also by itself. For instance in the novel “The Cranks” by A.N. Tolstoi (Ch. 14) in the episode of the quarrel between Sonechka and Smolkov in the ancient library: «Сонечка пронзительно всматривалась, – кажется, он опустил глаза, кажется – жалобно, жалобно у него задрожали губы. И вдруг ее самое пронзила жалость…» ‘Sonechka gazed piercingly – he seemed to drop his eyes, he seemed to get his lips trembling pitifully, pitifully. And suddenly she herself was pierced with the pity’. Nevertheless this newborn pity meets brutal and indifferent reply. After it «Сонечка опять осталась одна. Безнадежное омерзение, как мрак, опустилось на ее сердце … Ох, если бы можно было содрать с себя всю опоганенную кожу!». ‘Sonechka has again remained in the solitude. Hopeless loathing, as gloom, descended on its heart… oh, if it was possible to strip from itself entire befouled skin!’. The thoughts of the heroine are here organically intertwined with the author's speech, and as to the grounds of ascribing the expression “loathing” precisely to heroin, it can be proved with the synonymous locution appearing in her exclamation. Remarkably even in the concealed quotation here the reduplication (twice “pitifully”) is used.

It is just the reduplications that are used on the improper - direct speech, as if with special agreement, by absolutely different writers. Thus it is put about the chief hero of R. Rolland’s “Jean-Christophe” (“Dans la maison”, Ch. 2): «Christophe rayonnait la vie. Elle penetrait doucement, doucement, comme une tiedeur de printemps, a travers les vieux murs…» ‘Christoph emanated life. It penetrated tenderly, tenderly as the heat of early spring through the old walls’. The words concerning the hero’s state build up actually a latent quotation that reproduces the style of his poetic elevated speech. In the same manner in D.H.Lawrence’s “The Plumed Serpent” (Chapter 8) where the sojourn of an Englishwoman in Mexico in the times of compulsory neopaganism in the 20-th of the XX-th century «Kate had known the agony of cold social fear, as if a democracy were a huge, huge centipede which, if you resisted it, would dig every claw…». That it goes about a latent quotation is supported with typical locutions for the person’s impressions. Similarly obstinately and obtrusively is sometimes repeated the word responsible, twice – the phrase responsible for the well-being of the world (D.H. Lawrence’s “Lady-bird”, chapter “The Fox”) where the experiences of the heroine March are described after the loss of her friend Banford, which are presented actually as the inner monologue. It is curious that the devices of such redoubled repetition often acquire an ironic hue. For example such meaning have the repeated phrases in the retold feelings of Bessie concerning the chief hero in R. Kipling’s novel “The Light that Faded” (chapter 14): «She had pitied the man sincerely, had kissed him with almost equal sincerity…». The same hue slips also in Dick’s portrayal (10) who «remembered to stir Bessie who needed very little stirring».

Thus construction with improper - direct speech and the detachment of separate expressions as the concealed quotations compose the fundamentally new special feature of artistic language, discovered in the romanticism. It is something symbolical in the fact that the use of improper direct speech as the indication of the places of imaginative generalization is to be found in such an outstanding work concluding the historical XIX century as A. Alain-Fournier’s novel “Le Grand Meulnes”. Here the mixture of latent quotations with the author’s narrative becomes already stable and constant compositional device. Thus latent quotation appears in the moment when the person that conducts the narrative retells the disappointment from the impression of the partners of the conversation with mentioning their objections: «Le chateau? On trouverait certainement des gens du pays qui en ont entendu parler. La jeune fille? Mealnes se mariera avec elle quand il aura fait son annee de service». The narrator seemingly conducts a soliloquy without indicating even, from whom of the collocutors proceed the given objections: this improper - direct speech is supplemented also with indefinite - personal construction.

The method of improper direct speech appears as a kind of “mounting of quotation marks” to the separate expressions (by analogy with “the mounting of brackets” in the set theory), that becomes the factor of semantic transition. In the same manner as the transition from the word to the word combination is its “expansion (propagation)” disclosing the deeper layers of inner form and acquiring the outer form resources the representation of an idea as a latent quotation imparts new meanings to it and makes it being adapted figuratively. The most essential it proves here to be not renaming or allegory (replacement of name) as itself but the shift in the conceptual volume without the depletion of its content (in contrast to the regulations of the formal logic). There arise images to be observed that are inherent in the idiolect of the character cited. Therefore the study of the concealed quotations can contribute to the disclosure of the represented phraseology. The author puts his own thought but imparts to it the attire of an alien person supposed to pronounce the latent quotation inserted as the segment of improper direct speech.

Just here lyrical and dramatic approaches intermingle and interact. As an illustrious example one can cite R.M. Rilke’s “Blind Woman” (“Die Blinde” from “The Book of Images”) where the monologue of the lyrical heroine betrays the apparent features of a soliloquy. One has here to take into account the poet’s scenic experience, nevertheless it doesn’t go about the immediate impact: the lyrical heroine accounts of her sentiments while becoming blind, and the Stranger’s voice apparently is that of her inner dialogue (Die Blinde: […] Die damals sah, die laut und schauend lebte / Die starb. Der Fremde : Und hatte einen schweren Tod? B.: Sterben ist Grausamkeit an Ahnungslosen). That it goes about soliloquy can be proved with the further lines where imaginary voice of the mother appears (Wer ist denn hinter dem Vorgang? – Winter? Mutter: Sturm? Mutter: Nacht? Sag!). Such episodic dialogues within the lyrical lines don’t transform a verse in a dramatic poem. They just impart it the features of improper direct speech and a verse can be read as an episode of a dramatic scene.

The above exposed outline of the opportunities of proper and improper direct speech in artistic prose enables developing approach to a novel or a verse as a