Національна Академія Мистецтв України Інститут культурології
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| mutineer unusual for folklore rites. While dealing with “drama – ballad” relations one should also take into consideration the importance of such relations not only for epic transformation of modern drama but also for the formation of dramatic work in New Time as opposite to earlier dichotomy of tragedy and comedy. It is well known that it was by no means novel or any other epic branch of literature that exerted influence upon dramatic art so that its development has resulted in the turning point of G. Lessing’s works. The so called bench songs (Bänkelgesang) and gaits ditties (Gassenhauer) that belonged to folk theatre repertory and intermingled with ballads were the immediate sources of newly created works. It is worth mentioning that J. Goethe’s collecting work in balladry was developing together with the creation of his “The Theatre Mission of Wilhelm Meister” (the first version that had been conceived as a paragon pattern of novel). Even not to say about J. Gay one should indicate the dependence upon ballad imagery that is to be felt in G. Lillo, namely, the way of the decision - making that the dramatis personae prefer. For instance, the words of repentance of Barnwell uttered upon the coffin of his uncle just murdered by him resemble the triple gradation of ballad oaths: «Murder the worst of crimes, and parricide the worst of murders, and this the worst of parricides!». Triplicate formulae belong to universal rhetorical devices, but in such a chain of deeds they are peculiar for ballads1355. The repentance serves here as the turning point that foretells the subsequent destruction of hero, so that sentiments and passions arising from unmotivated habits and purely symbolic gestures are becoming the moving force for significant deeds. Thus the events follow loosely one another in the manner of ballad where there lacks the explanation of their causes.
In its turn the very rise of drama is richly endowed with the legacy of the mentioned ballad - like bench songs. For example, in G. Lessing’s “Minna von Barhelm” one can detect tracks of their specific poetics. Such is the principal idea of the work that is proclaimed twice in an echo - like manner by both heroes in the final scene of the arrangement of affairs1356. Such duplicity betrays the contraposition as a consequence of the denudation of conflicts in ballad that makes it narrow to drama. In general the story of Minna who seeks her sweetheart belongs to the repertory of ballad plots of the examination of lovers’ fidelity, in particular, such a plot is witnessed with the motif of the return of unrecognized lover and with the motif of an active maiden who makes her lover reveal own passion. It is known that as a predecessor of G. Lessing can be regarded Chr. Weiße’s “Rosemunde” as overtly built upon ballad foundation. Here (as later in J. Slowacki’s “Balladyna”) appears a Lady Macbeth - like feminine person outstanding for cruelty and perfidy. The very plot of Schiller’s “The Robbers” has an outspoken attachment to balladry and to protest songs (in particular to those about smugglers popular in Schiller’s time). For instance, the rivalry between brothers (as between Karl and Franz) with similar to Schiller series of events can be found in Scandinavian ballad “Ebbe Skanmmelson” (where Ebbe kills his brother Peder and leaves for becoming a robber). Another source for the plot is to be traced in Ukrainian ballad “Podolyanka” (sister at her brothers who have become robbers). It is of importance not only the presence of those or other motifs themselves (such as the final decision of Karl that is equal to suicide) as well as their compositional relations but the type of discourse, and especially of that found in protest songs that determines epic inclinations of the drama. In another Schiller’s drama “Perfidy and Love” (“Kabale und Liebe”) the chief feminine dramatis personae Lady Milford and Louise Miller resemble a pair of respective ballad adversaries, especially sisters (as the Black Isot and the White Isot in Scandinavian ballad “Tristram and Isot” or in similar Ukrainian ballads). Moreover, one can here detect parallels in the ballads about the gifting of lover not only due to suicide committed by Ferdinand and Louise but on the very essence of intrigue. It goes about the defamatory letter written by Louise under the violent pressure of Wurm that plays the same role in drama that poison does in ballad. Perhaps the very name of the person who dictates the contents of the letter to Louise presupposes a subconscious hint to the parallel “letter as poison”: Wurm denotes a worm, a kind of snake. The very process of the concoction of the letter written to the words uttered by this “snaky” person resembles a ballad scene of a visit of innocent person to a witch - doctor. The real suicidal poisoning comes here as a result of this symbolic poisoning in the letter. The same entity gets in ballad and dramatic plays different instantiations. Such examples of the tracks of balladry in the very process of the formation of new drama seem to be of significance for the explanation of the relations between dramatic and epic contents. The very essence of drama in opposite to those of comedy and tragedy is peculiar for its parallels to epic literature, especially to short novel. In fact one deals often with a kind of an abridged novel, where direct speech is presented without narrative components and adapted for staging. Quite a loose and fuzzy difference between drama in proper sense and the versions of novels arranged for staging seems to be of an importance for the elucidation of their relation towards ballad as well to the relation between ballad and legend within the realm of folklore. To overcome the dualistic “tragedy - comedy” model drama had to install new relations to epics, and just here ballad played its role. The most obvious way here led through the rise of characters and conflicts that were to be traced most clearly in the Romantic era. To enumerate only most eminent samples one should begin with the mentioned R. Wagner’s “The flying Dutchman” that is itself a kind of staging ballad. In its turn the famous Senta’s ballad serves here as a peculiar song insertion that imparts narrative to the dramatic flow of action and in such a way designates as an allegory the plot of the play. The contents of this ballad is interesting also due to the fact that such a plot is here exposed as a chain of verbs that create a kind of the tagging in the manner of Julius Caesar’s phrase “veni vidi vici”. Be the nominal parts of sentences omitted, then one detects the tagging verbal succession: «antreffen (das Schiff im Meer) – wachen (ohne Rast) – fliegen (ohne Rast) – erlösen – finden (getreues Weib)» (‘to meet (a ship in the sea) – to keep awake (without rest) – to fly (without rest) – to be rescued – to find (a faithful wife)’). Actually Senta forebodes the flow of events and thus foretells the plot. Here the coming events of the opera are denoted and thus an epic narrative is created. H. Ibsen’s “Peer Gynt” can be regarded as a staged ballad too. A typical ballad plot of examination (here as an itinerary) gives here an occasion for the exposure of a program of action in the dilemma - either to depart in search for one’s self or to be satisfied with oneself. Such a conflict excludes tale and belongs to the realm of ballad. In E. Rostand’s “Princesse lointaine” (‘The far princess’) the ballad plot of searches for the person known due to portrayal gives rise to the conflict of the choice between the ill poet who reached this maiden and his messenger to whom this princess falls in love. Epic element here is represented with discussions and reflections of leading characters that give a kind of reports on their decision - making (besides the inserted songs). Another sample of epic discourse in drama is to be found in A. Block’s drama “Rose and Cross” where the song insertions denote turning points of action and give allegoric explanation to the events. In all these samples one finds such circumstances that promote the reconstruction of the absent narrative elements. A very particular case of treating balladry in drama as a vehicle of approaching narrative represents puppet theatre. It was already famous H. von Kleist’s essay on puppet shows that designated the commencement of a new attitude towards this art. Here it is to mention again the works of Fr. Pocci who essentially promoted the revival and remake of puppet theatre. For instance, in his remake of “The Cinderella” (“Aschenbrödel”) the conditions of such a theatre permit to introduce a commentary that presents report of the events, as in the chorus that predicts: «Der golden’ Schuh an deinem Fuß / Er ist’s, der dich erlösen muß» (‘It is the golden shoe on your leg that must rescue you’). In another Fr. Pocci’s elaboration of the plot of “Sleeping Beauty” (known also as “a white faced beauty”), in “The Thorn of a Rose” the flow of events becomes known to the audience due to the consecrations of magic beings. All such examples show that one encounters a very vast scope of epic devices in dramatic discourse associated with ballad. These devices embrace inserted songs, commentaries and generalized conclusions of dramatis personae, meditations and retardation of action, ironic and grotesque verve of discourse, elements of absurdity. The epic elements of drama can be designated as those procuring the reconstruction and comprehension of a narrative presupposition that is implicitly present in each drama. There is reticent epics hidden behind a drama, and ballad promotes in detecting it. The commentaries of dramatis personae substitute immediate narrative with direct speech and in an oblique way reproduce epic line. In its turn the ironic attitude enables conventionality to become the factor of predictability and in this way to promote the reconstruction of narrative. As an example of epic effects of a very bitter irony may serve Ödön von Horvath’s play “Geschichten aus dem Wiener Wald” (‘Stories from the Vienna Forest’). One has already indicated the connections of this play with the traditions of folk theatre as well as with Brecht’s parables in the epic theatre, especially with his “Der Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti” [McGown, 1982, 76]. Meanwhile these connections are even deeper and broader and they extend to the epoch of “bench songs”. It is not accidentally that the chief feminine character of the play bears the name Marianne that is an obvious hint to the famous ballad of J. Gleim where the fate of the person is in fact very similar. It goes about the destruction of a maiden that was compelled by the parents to matrimony with an antipathetic person. In J. Gleim’s poem «geht in schwarzer Lüge Mama zu ihr» (‘mother comes to her with black lie’) and tells her calumny as if her sweetheart would be already married. In Horvath’s play the situation gets even worse because both male participants of such an amorous triangle turn out to be not rivals themselves but in the first place antagonists to Marianne so that she is not only mistaken in her own choice but also loses all vital goals with the death of her child. Such an aggravated version of ballad solution of conflict is here especially interesting for those idiomatic devices that are used to present Marianne’s struggle for her pride and honor. Just in the moment of betrothal with Oskar who was chosen to her by her father she pronounces a very notable phrase that betrays her rhetoric pathetic experience and her intentions only to defend her rights: «Ich laß mich von euch nicht mehr tyrannisieren! Jetzt bricht der Sklave seine Fessel – da!» (‘I won’t let you tyrannize me more! Now the slave breaks his chains – here!’). At the same time she addresses her sweetheart Alfred who does still hesitate with resolute words: «Laß mich aus dir einen Menschen machen – du machst mich so groß und weit» (‘let me make a men of thine – thou will make me so great and wide’). Alfred answers: «Du erhöhst mich» (‘thou will make me lofty’). And just in the next act in a year after the birth of child she reminds him this conversation obtaining an outspoken lie as a reply: «(Marianne:) Du hast mir gesagt daß ich dich erhöh (Alfred:) Das hab ich nier gesagt» (‘Thou hath said me that I make thou lofty – (Alfred:) I have never said it’). Such an echo - like confrontation, as it has already been mentioned, belongs to ballad stylistic devices. Another typical idiom of cruel romances is to be encountered when she makes an attempt to return to parental home: «Ich werf mich noch vort den Zug» (‘I’ll throw myself under a train’). Just in this moment during a festivity she is abused by a new character – Mister that embodies the financial power. He accuses her of committing a theft and now again returns a version of her utterance of defense: «Ich will mich nicht mehr geschlagen werden!» (I will not more be beaten!). Such exclamations belong to the phraseology of protest. At last, when in the final scene after Marianne’s return from prison the letter comes that informs about the death of her child such an exclamations appears again in reply to Oskar’s admonitions: «(Oskar:) Gott ist die Liebe, Marianne, und wen er liebt, den schlägt er (Marianne:) Mich prügelt er wie einen Hund!» (‘(Oskar:) God is love, Marianne, and he beats whom he loves (Marianne:) He beats me as a dog!’). The last “he” denotes here also Oskar who used to treat her in such a manner. Then the final words of Oskar «… du wirst meiner Liebe nicht entgehen» (‘… thou will not avoid my love’) suppose that love is here conceived as violence. Epic discourse in this play is revealed through such idiomatic devices that impart the tint of predestination to the depicted events and thus determine a distance in the attitude to them. For instance, the exclamatory protesting locutions by Marianne become predictable and thus remove dramatic indefiniteness reinforcing at the same time the epic traits of estranged presentation. In general such predictability is conditioned with ironical attitude towards the well known plot that this play bears. It is here to observe how drama conducts experimentation with the shift of meaning. In contrast to these overt ballad elaborations it is interesting to admit that ballad tracks are felt in such dramas that lie very far from this trend. In particular these tracks are sensitive in R.M. Rilke’s early theatre attempts that immediately preceded his famous “Cornet”. One has already remarked an epic character of naturalist drama as a pretext for presenting nuances1357. At the same time one can trace also the contribution that ballad tracks have here made – especially in the treatment of separate motifs. In “Das tägliche Leben” (‘Everyday life’) the development of a love story between a painter George and his model Masha is depicted. Although the drama resembles a staged novel one can easily detect such motifs. For example, a hint to this love story gives motif of secret matrimony that appears in ha episodic dialogue between George’s sister Sophie and her guest: «(Sophie:) Nach ihrer Meinung soll man leise heiraten? (‘According to your opinion one ought to marry quietly?’) (Leopold:) Ja, möglichst unauffällig (Yes, as imperceptibly as possible)». Another motif concerns window that is associatred with feminine element. George mentions it in his chat with Masha that he sleeps till late «nur um das viele unbenutzte Licht nicht zu sehen, mit dem sich das Fenster füllt» (‘co that only not to see a lot of unnecessary light that fills the window’). Such an assertion can easily be deciphered as a kind of unconscious psychological defense. Such hints make references to a typical ballad motifs’ repertory. Such motifs can be treated as a kind of idiomatic problems. It has been already shown how the process of letter writing in Schiller’s “Perfidy and Love” substitutes the process of venom producing in ballad. Here we deal with various idiomatic designations of the problem (VENOM and respectively LETTER) and the attaching attributes (SNAKE in ballad, WORM (= Wurm) in drama). Together with the attributive representation of problems there are loose listing structures of generalities (as those of pronominal predicates in the mentioned Senta’s ballad from “The flying Dutchman”). From such a viewpoint it becomes essential that both drama and ballad demonstrate a very clear structure of text as centralized and normalized space. One can detect axial and lateral zones that overlap the generalities and particulars represented in the text and determine their hierarchy. It is the old notion of catastrophe that is peculiar for drama and is not obligatory for novel where culmination may be dispersed. In its turn ballad is discernible as compared to other folklore genres due to its clearly delineated culmination point. For instance, in German Ballad “Der Hauptmann von Köpenick” (about the real events that took place in 1906 when a disguised shoemaker has arrested the town council) one can easily separate key line: «… im stolzen Hauptmannskleide / Nur ein Schuster war gesteckt» (‘it was the shoemaker who was hidden under the arrogant colonel’s uniform’). A persuasive example of such axial motif gives the “La balade du grand macabre” (‘The ballad of a great murderer’) by M. de Ghelderode. The play where carnival schemes of absurdity are adapted deals with the arrival to Breughelland of Great Murderer Nekrozotar who proclaims the end of the world and demands that the state prepares to it. These preparations are interrupted with Salivaine, the wife of the philosopher (a type of Xantippa) who demands from Nekrozotar the dry herring: «Ce hareng saur, où est-il?». The answer of Nekrozotar («Il est mort» ‘He is dead’) concerns himself. Thus the symbol of dry herring designates the turning point of the drama and serves as a rescue from the world end. It is this singular word that drama can be said to be written on behalf of it. Beside this field structure that unites drama and ballad there is the feature of a textual heterogeneity that is the sequel of dialogical fragmentation. N.Kh. Kopystianska has already underlined that in ballad «one scene follows the preceded one without transitions, explanations, descriptions» [Копистянська, 2005, 225]. Moreover it goes about the absence of immediate description of the narrated events1358. If the aforementioned catastrophe in drama and culmination in ballad act as integrative forces, the very nature of drama as experiment in the theatre play and examination of words entails the fragmentation of text. All these observations give grounds to the conclusion that together with ballad novel there are reasons not only to separate special ballad drama but also to trace respective historical trends of the development of drama. It is due to ballad that drama acquires epic features and develops respective devices that enable the reconstruction of narrative presupposition. Conflict, protest, risk of extremities and examination of speech reveal themselves through a sophisticated interplay of epic and drama promoted with ballad tradition. These transcendental sources of dramatic poetry in balladry can be traced further in the purely musical terrain that can serve as a model for generating texts of verbal substance in the reverse way. The difference will become obvious when we bear in mind that there existed still another parallel between verbal and music arts, namely between novel and sonata. The term ballad has been used here to designate a very special mood of presenting and elaborating music material that entailed essential consequences in the sphere of the so called developmental forms including those of sonata. It should be described within the system of notions that presupposes the narrative way of presenting music stuff as opposed to those of dramatic or rhetoric traditions respectively. Perhaps the earliest indication concerning such an approach towards the use of balladry titles in instrumental music is to be found in R.Schumann’s Fantasy where a special episode with the title “Im Legendenton” appears. As N.Marston [236 - 237] has put it, “it is the sense of disjunction, of fissure between different kinds of music” that acquires an outlook of an “unexpectedly sung song” and liberates the listener from “sonata-form mold”. In this particular case it is endowed with such an effect due to insertion of vocal imitation in the purely instrumental field. The meaning of such disjunction (that has taken place in the latter samples of ballad as well) is to be regarded as a certain counterbalance to such a peculiarity of all the evolutionary forms (including the mentioned “sonata-form mold”) as the so called thematic elaboration (in German Motivenarbeit) with the derivative contrast that provided earlier the continuity of thematic procedures. This counterbalance of confrontation as opposed to derivation in its turn reveals a much more generalized validity: it goes about the opposition to earlier foundations of developmental forms that were associated either with theatre or with old rhetoric prescriptions. The thematic elaboration corresponded to the episodes of so called peripetia (where struggle took place) of classical drama or to confutation of a “righteous” rhetorical sermon. It is the well known fact that even the latest works of Beethoven show very strict dependence upon the rhetoric traditions of music. That is why those means of expression that acquire the designation of balladry are overtly confronted to earlier conventions, and they conceived as the means of narration being an embodiment of absolute music. This circumstance should be accepted as an explanatory model while dealing with the fact that it is still the first eminent example of the romantic piano ballad (Chopin’s Ballad g-moll) that is marked with essential shifts indicating the new treatment of sonata form. As Fr. Eibner [108] has put it, “it will become obvious that the form of Chopin’s ballad g – moll cannot be read on the basis of themes and harmonies only, when one becomes aware of the manifold thematic procedures that take place there”. The changes of sonata form that took place in Chopin’s ballads are connected to the mentioned idea of disjunction (that is of the confrontation of heterogeneous themes that would estrange the stream of music ideas). Thus in the 1-st and 2-nd ballads an insertion of alien theme before the finale takes place together with the mirroring in reprise (in German Spiegelform), in the 3-d ballad such a confrontation takes place before an abridged reprise, while in the 4-th ballad one deals with a kind of derivative contrast dissolving primary theme in an ornamental stream without using special devices of disjunction. Anyhow both contrasts of confrontation (that overwhelm here) and those of derivation serve the mutual goal of the formation of a kind of epic distance. One may say the confrontations are introduced to be overcome (and so the derivative contrast too), they both serve to create a playground to reveal and unfold the integrative forces of a work. Epic distance plays here the role of a prerequisite for artistic synthesis as an aim of the program of absolute music itself. In difference to the more widespread monothematic procedures that lead to the formation of the so called thorough composition (in German Durchkomponieren) here the compositional continuity was achieved due to artistic motivation of the integration of heterogeneous stuff. From the very point of such a role of epic distance within the form building procedures the question arises as to the selection of such a stuff which would be attributed as a mark of balladic semantics. One can come to a conclusion that a certain system of such music signs has been coined. Perhaps they can be better demonstrated on the example of Liszt’s ballads that were written later than those of Chopin and served as a preparatory attempt for the famous Sonata h-moll. In full accordance with the concept of epic distance ballad contents is presented as something remote – both spatially and temporarily. In this respect the material selected for ballads differs from the previously dominating in sonatas thematic stuff such as themes of the character of operatic airs or of rhetoric mottoes. Thus the formation of narrative style as the vehicle of absolute music evoked the process of the development of new rhetoric means that soon have replaced those of old rhetoric tradition. Such a transition corresponds to the essence of balladic artistic language that is marked with formulaic quality. To these means one would refer such devices, as for example, the use of the intervals of thirds (and sixths as their inversions), especially as the intervals for doubling the melody. Such means are to be found in the inserted theme in Chopin’s 3-d ballad, in Liszt’s 1-st ballad, they are often used by Brahms. It is interesting to admit, that Debussy’s so called “Slavonic ballad” contains an intonation of “swaying” thirds. Another device of a “balladic” character can be regarded as particular rhythmic figures, especially those of anapest that are already used in the mentioned episode “Im Legendenton” by R. Schumann. One can include in the number of such devices also the broad use of instrumental declamatory means that are peculiar especially for Liszt’s style. The experience of Brahms’ ballads attracts attention still to another side of narrative style that lays beyond the limits of sonata-like integration. Written chiefly in three – partite forms (with complicated reprises) they represent a kind of idyll comparable to the pages of composer’s contemporary Adalbert Stifter. Here lyric concentration reveals itself as a counterbalance to epic distance that acts as an integrative force. In other words one can say about an interplay between centripetal and centrifugal forces represented with lyrics and epics respectively. The presence of both epic and lyric elements in ballad genre is reproduced in music through the development of a strain that arises around the axial force of lyrics that integrates the distanced elements. As far as the late romanticism is concerned such force gains a very particular expression which can be defined as a nostalgic attitude. The commemorative essence of ballad thus becomes coherent with the tendency of stylistic development of romanticism towards retrospectivism, and its traces are firstly witnessed by Brahms. Moreover, such a tendency reveals its coherency with still another romantic stream: it goes about oriental wave. In this respect it is worth reminding that in Japanese language the word “sabishi” that is used to signify the concept of “beauty” bears also another sense of “ancient”, “antiquity”. Such a worship of nostalgic attitude that resembles also the glorification of melancholy in European culture can be evaluated as a common denominator of oriental and retrospective tendencies of romanticism represented in artistic ballad. In its turn the nostalgic attitude and retrospective tendencies being reflected in the contents of artistic piano balladry are very clearly expressed in Grieg’s Ballad, which is interesting for many reasons. First of all this work being written as a cycle of free variations to the original Norwegian theme is remarkable due to a very singular choice of such a theme. The melody contains two features that betray very old and apparent connections between folklore and baroque style. Melodic line here delineates a very widespread in the baroque era locution – namely, the so called rhetoric figure of passus duriusculu. The rhythmic structure, in its turn, acquires the outlook of the so called proportio peritiorum (or ionicus minor in ancient terms) that coincides with the so called mazurka rhythm. Such a choice bears witness of late romantic retrospective tendency represented by the composer. As to the formal disposition these variations are particular for the reason of overcoming the difference between monopartite and polypartite compositions – the problem that has won its sharpness in the next century. Of a special importance the circumstance seems to become that the integration of variations’ cycle is founded on rhythmical development. It is due to the contrast of rhythmical transformation (the introduction of so called dotted or cyclical dactyl) that the central section becomes clearly delineated and the next one where the primary rhythm returns can serve as a reprise. Such formal procedures serve nostalgic attitude creating a kind of music memorial of the inner world of a lyric hero. It is due to narrative style developed in piano balladry that these and other heterogeneous elements become integrated in a continuous stream of music speech representing lyrical imagery. It is the generalized image of something passing over the narrow borders of chamber world that is usually comprehended as a quality of ballad and in its turn this chamber quality that betrays the scenic attachments of lyrics. Thus one can describe such a quality in the terms of opposing notions of far and near (those of the far world belonging simultaneously to the world of one’s own past). Ballad deals with anomalous deeds and therefore it borders with the phenomena of wonder that belong to the fairy tale. Fabulous imagery of a fairy tale and ballad is overtly opposed to mythology with its ritualistic restrictions imposed upon mentality. If balladry belongs to the chief prerequisites in overcoming the dualism “tragedy vs. comedy” with imparting epic verve to dramatic and lyrical discourse, it will be perhaps fairy tale that contributes to establishing new interrelations between drama and lyrics. Being an intermediary stage in the development from myth to epics the fairy tale becomes also a bridge from mystery play to fairy play in theatre and as the consequence the necessary element in the development of dramatic poem. In this development it is to point to such decisive step as that of elaborating fairy imagery as the field of mental experimentation where the characters display their abilities to pass over the borders of common sense. Sucj step can be ascribed to C. Gozzi. One can regard C. Gozzzi’s tales as the paragon for scenic interpretation of fabulous fairy imagery1359. The most essential is that the protagonists and chief heroes of all tales are feminine personalities. It is in “Turandot” that for the first time in theatre an attempt has been made to represent feminine character in its full autonomy and originality. The motives of the Heroine’s refusal to acknowledge the victory of Kalaf are those of adherence to freedom without any hint to the usual images of feminine capriciousness. Turandot’s monologue blames masculine side of treacherousness and of oppressing women treated as husbands’ slaves. The idioms of “pretended love” and “foul slavery” give grounds for Turandot’s decision to continue the contest in the additional examination (guessing the origin of Kalaf) supported with the threat of suicide. In its turn Kalaf’s agreement means actually also his readiness to commit suicide so that it goes actually about the risk of double suicide (reminding the motifs of Romeo and Juliette). Turandot obtains the secret due to her trusty servant deceiving Kalaf, but it is also Turandot who rescues Kalaf from his suicide with her declaration of love. Such coexistence of seeming contradictions becomes the principal novelty in representing feminine soul at the stage discovered by Gozzi. “The Blue Monster” deals with the necessity of keeping secret. The fidelity of the spouses – the husband Taer and his wife Dardane – is exposed to examination by the magician who makes a monster of the husband and a warrior of the wife. Besides, she is obliged to be silent and meets this demand being jailed as the result of calumny. Her husband who has turned into monster has no such obligation: as he appears together with her in the same prison he rescues her from execution as he shows that the supposed warrior is in reality woman, and in this moment the term of enthrallment is expired. The feminine endurance and fidelity are praised here. A similar prohibition of chatter is represented in “The Raven” where Gennaro steals for his royal brother the bride Armilla together with a falcon and a horse, but becomes cursed by Armilla’s father who makes the prepared presents dangerous for the king and at the same time forbids Gennaro to say about this secret. Then Gennaro kills both falcon and horse and bids the king to postpone his marriage. In response the king condemns him to death; then he says the truth and turns into stony statue (as the consequence of curse). He is rescued by Armilla who commits suicide; her father enlivens her as the “deus ex machina” in happy end. Again feminine exploit becomes the decisive step in dramatic action. In “The King Deer” the hero has the talent of transplanting his soul in different bodies, so he informs of it his minister while being together with him at the hunt. Then to demonstrate this ability he transplants himself in the killed deer, his minister occupies his body and then from a deer he makes his is compelled to settle in the corpse of a beggar. This pretended beggar with the king’s soul manages to inform the king’s wife Angela and it is she who finds the magician with the outlook of a parrot who restores the justice. Angela’s fidelity is here the decisive power that enables punishing the malice and returning to harmony. “The Happy Beggars” deals with a similar case of the disclosure of treason. King’s wife again bears the name of Angela. King pretends to be absent with the aim of examining his minister who begins to do malice with concocting unjust love affairs. Angela appears to the minister under the name of a monstrous person whom he promises to marry. Besides, it is the fidelity of the wives of the harmed spouses that contribute to the disclosure of the tyrant. In “The Green Bird” it is the repentance of Barbarine that saves her brother and all protagonists. She is together with her brother exposed to the examination with the seduction of speculative doctrines and of unexpected undeserved richness: she sends the brother to find rarities for the whims of her courtship-maker of higher rank. There the beloved brother turns into a statue. When Barbarine learns about the harm she rejects her fortune to rescue the brother. It is love that triumphs over false doctrines and hazardous luck. In “Zobeida” the heroine (called as the play) who has been stolen as a wife by the magician manages to detect his secrets and to liberate her and his victims. It is the doubts that she is tested with. She hesitates as to the certitude of the confided secrets and only having overcome these hesitations and doubts the victory comes. In “The Woman Serpent” the love story between the fairy girl Kerestani and king Farruskad is represented, and it is her lover who doesn’t stand the previous test of temptations with the curiosity and with the prohibition of curses. Then the fairy girl turns into a serpent, so that to get her again the prince must be tested with a series of exploits where the decisive is kissing the monstrous serpent where his sweetheart’s soul dwells now. In reality it is Kerestani who suffers most as she has made her option and the weakness demonstrated by the king previously exposes this love to risk. Feminine wisdom and endurance again save the peace. In “Dzeim, the King of Djinns or the Devoted Slave” one finds the real triumph of feminine endurance and persistence. The unidentified sister Dugme works as a slave under the name of Dzelika at a princess and substitutes her for her bridegroom when the princess is turned unto a tiger in consequence of a curse. She manages to restrain from contacts with her pretenses husband and due to insistence at the expired term of curse enables the sister’s returning to human body. In “The Love to Three Oranges” Ninette being turned into a pigeon by the rival manages to return to the human body due to her endurance and persistence. Thus a unique gallery of feminine personalities appears: Turandot, Dardane, Armilla, the both Angela, Barbarina, Kerestani, Dzelika, Nimette – all they (not to say of the other unmentioned here) demonstrate the particular dignities of feminine world and disclose the opportunities of humoristic viewpoint discovering ways for truth and justice. This fabulous world of feminine exploits where love stories gain the priority is resonant with C. Gozzi’s own utterance attested in his recollections1360. It is in this world that truth and deceit are exposed to the severest examinations. Maternal and infantile smile is the genuine signs of sincerity, so that to testify poetical truth one should imagine oneself a child and put childish questions capable of detecting humor. Thus we can come to the final conclusion: a жүктеу/скачать 6.92 Mb. Достарыңызбен бөлісу:
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