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- Бұл бет үшін навигация:
- WAYS OF CONVEYING THE LEXICAL MEANING OF GENUINE INTERNATIONALISMS
- Greek
- English
- Arabic
- 2. Translating via Transcribing/Conveying the Sounding Structure
- 3. Translating by Practical Transcribing
- «practical transcribing» or translators transcription.
- 4. Descriptive Translating of International Lexemes
- 5. Translating by Way of Synonymous Substitution
- TRANSLATING OF LOAN INTERNATIONALISMS
- SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION
драматичний хвилюючий яскравий раптовий непередбачений {індустрія промисловість галузь промисловості старанність працьовитість Apart from the polysemantic words with several meanings, one of which is genuine international and the rest pseudo-international, i.e., non-international as in the examples above, there are also quite a few words in present-day English and Ukrainian which have an identical orthographic form but quite different lexical meaning: accurate точний, правильний, Влучний but not акуратний; billet ордер на постій, приміщення для постою but not квиток; compositor складач (друк.) but not композитор; data дані but not дата; decade десятиріччя but not декада; decoration нагорода, прикраса but not декорація; Dutch голландський but not данський; fabulist байкар, вигадник but not фабуліст; intelligence розум, кмітливість but not інтелігенція; momentous важливий but not моментальний; matrass колба but not матрац (mattress); obligation зобов'язання but not облігація; potassium калій but not поташ; prospect перспектива but not проспект; production виробництво, випуск but not only продукція; repjica точна копія but not репліка; spectre привид but not спектр, etc. As can be ascertained, these English words quite accidentally coincide in their lingual form with some other borrowed words in Ukrainian. Thus, «replica», f0r example, has quite a different denotative meaning in Ukrainian than our репліка (cue, remark). So is the deno-
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tative meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international words are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані друзі перекладача). Unlike common lexical units, whose orthographic and sounding forms never coincide in the target language and in the source language, the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all languages is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always transplanted to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton (драма, поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі, etc.). More often the same genuine international lexemes in English and Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrainian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of genuine international words in Ukrainian are structurally more complicated than in English (cf. apathy - апат/я, dietic-дієтичний, form-форма, exploit - експлуатувати, economic - економічний), etc. Some genuine international words, however, may be structurally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Cf.: Greek: analysis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philosopher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appendicitis апендицит, tuberculosis туберкульоз, rheumatismus ревматизм, etc. Hence, the structural models according to which different logico-grammatical classes of internationalisms are adopted in English and in Ukrainian mostly differ. On this ground relevant for the identification, as well as for the translation of any international word, remains its root morpheme, i.e., its sense bearing seme. Taking this into account, lexemes like anti-trade, arch-enemy, inventor consisting of international affixes and having common root morphemes are to be treated as non-internationalisms, i.e., as pseudointernationalisms. The international nature/status of a source language lexeme is considered to be fully retained, when the root morpheme or at least the sense and lingual form (part of it) can be rendered in the target language. Consequently, the compounds consisting of a genuine international and a common root morpheme as schopj-mate, coal-gas. washing-machine, etc. are to be defined in English as partly international, i.e., mixed-type lexical units. Similarly in Ukrainian: Газосховище, раоУохвилі, водно-спиртовий.
From what has been pointed out concerning the nature and componental structure of genuine internationalisms becomes clear, that a faithful rendering of their lexical meaning often requires considerable attention on the part of translators. At any rate, in the process of their translation several factors have to be taken into consideration both at language level and at speech level. These factors imply the lingual form, the lexical meaning, the structure, the source of origin and the orthographic presentation of internationalisms in both the languages. As a result, expresing of meaning of some internationalisms may not always be termed «translation» proper, since it is a regular and complete transplantation of the source language units to the target language (cf. atom атом, plan план, professor професор, algebra алґебра, poet поет, etc). Besides, translating of international lexemes may sometimes depend on the established model stereotype according to which they are generally adopted in the target language. Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of international lexemes, several ways of conveying their meaning can be suggested. 1. Literal Translating of Genuine Internationalisms. It should be pointed out that the lingual form of all componental parts in genuine international words and phrases is more often completely transplanted, when they originate from languages, whose orthographic systems have been arranged on phonetical principles. Hence, the authenticity of literal translating from languages as Latin, Greek, Italian, Ukrainian, partly Russian and Spanish will be always higher than that from the English or French languages, whose orthographic systems are based on the historical and etymological principles. It does not mean, however, that a less exact literal transplantation should be regarded as less faithful or inferior. Any of them is faithful enough when it conveys the form and meaning of internationalisms. In this view literal translating of genuine internationalisms should not be regarded as a mechanical substitution of each letter of the source language lexeme for a corresponding letter of the target language. In many a case a letter may be dropped or added (substituted for another) in the target language when it is not in full conformity with its sound or spelling systems. Nevertheless, there are many letter-to-letter transliterated genuine internationalisms in English and Ukrainian. Latin: angina анґіна, dentist дантист, symposium симпозіум, gladiator 134 135
 гладіатор, microscope мікроскоп, rector ректор; Greek: poet поет, micron мікрон, electron електрон, stadium стадіон, drama драма, theatre театр; Italian: macaroni макарони, pizza піцца, concerto концерт, duet дует, solo соло; Spanish: armada армада, tango танґо, El Dorado ельдорадо, embargo ембарго, etc.
It would be wrong to assume that genuine internationalisms from other than the above-mentioned languages can not be fully or almost fully transliterated. Literal translating can faithfully convey the lexical meaning of many English, French, German and also other than European by origin lexemes: English: bulldog бульдог1, club клуб, mister містер, shelf шельф, shilling шилінг1, shrapnel шрапнель; French: chef шеф, festival фестиваль, chiffon шифон, franc франк; Germ.: Diktat диктат, Deutsche Магкдойч марк; Portugese: cobra кобра, flamingo фламінго; Czech: robot робот; Hindi: brahmin брамін, khaki хакі, sari сарі; Japanese: kimono кімоно, tsunami цунамі; Arabic: algebra алґебра, atlas атлас, harem гарем; African: banana банан, baobab баобаб, zebra зебра; Australian aboriginal: dingo дінґо, kiwi ківі, etc. Literal translation of some of these and other genuine internationalisms may not be fully trusted, perhaps, as it has been performed not directly from the original languages but through English, which is an intermediary language here. The existence of literal forms of genuine internationalisms from these languages, however, is beyond any doubt like those from Ukrainian (cf. steppe, Cossack/ Kozak, hryvnia); or Russian (balalaika, samovar, vodka, etc.). Nevertheless, in many genuine internationalisms there is no absolute literal/orthographic coincidence in the source language and in the target language: basin басейн, monsoon мусон, waltz вальс, wine вино, salt сіль, степ steppe, devil диявол, muscle мускул, etc. These divergences in the literal rendering are to be explained either by the influence of the intermediary languages or by the peculiarity of the target language admitting or not admitting the source language orthographic representation (cf. brahmin брамін, class клас, diet дієта, molecule молекула, etc.) or foreign signs by the target language. 2. Translating via Transcribing/Conveying the Sounding Structure Many genuine internationalisms are also faithfully rendered into the target language in their sounding form. This kind of translating provides the rendition of the lexical meaning of a lot of internationalisms originating from English, French and some other languages, which have their orthographic systems based on other than phonetical principles. Cf.: English: boom бум, box бокс, yeans джинси, knock-out нокаут, leader лідер, raid рейд, round раунд, ггас/стрек; French: boulevard бульвар, bouquet букет, bourgeoisie буржуазія, bureau бюро, drape драп, prize приз, pince-nez пенсне, etc. The English and French international lexemes above belong to the lexico-grammatical class of nouns. But the number of genuine internationalisms, whose lexical meaning is faithfully conveyed in their unchanged original lingual form is small. More units of the layer of lexicon in English and Ukrainian do not fully coincide in their orthographic, sounding and morphological (structural) form. This is to be explained by the differences in the phonetic and morphological systems of the two languages and also by the possible influence of a third language as an intermediary between the source/target language and the language from which the international lexeme originates. To render faithfully the denotative meaning and the lingual form of these genuine internationalisms other ways of translating are to be employed. 3. Translating by Practical Transcribing International morphemes and lexemes are adopted in all languages according to the historically established traditions of their own. These find their expression in stereotype models for each lexico-grammatical class of words. As a result, any international word, whatever the language of its origin and irrespective of the source language, from which it is translated, will have one and the same lingual and structural form in the target language. Thus, whether it is bankruptcy in English, bankerott'm German, banqueroute'm French or bancarot-ta in Italian, it will always remain «банкрутство» in Ukrainian. Hence, only some degree of likeness is retained between the lingual form of bankruptcy and its Ukrainian equivalent «банкрутство». The adopted word has obtained in the target language an orthographic, sounding and morphological/structural form, which is only similar to that of English, French, German, or Italian. This kind of adopting internationalisms is traditionally called «practical transcribing» or translator's transcription. Hense, some internationalisms may retain still less similarity/ likeness in their lingual form when they are translated from English into Ukrainian: Ьасле/огбакалавр, cocoa какао, crown корона/крона, dance танець, giant гігант, grade градус, hocus-pocus фокус, mother-of-pearlперламутр, mosque мечеть, oil олія, outpost аванпост, papal папський, pound фунт (from German Pfund), etc. The number of internationalisms making up this group is comparatively small in the two contrasted languages. The bulk of interna- 136 137
tional lexemes, when conveyed by way of practical transcribing, still retain a considerable degree of lingual and structural similarity in the two languages. These are first of all nouns of Greek and Latin origin and also some adjectives, adverbs and verbs. They may often differ considerably in their morphological structure, mostly taking additional affixal morphemes in Ukrainian: ambition амбіція, apathy ana™, condenser конденсатор, devil диявол, diplomacyдипломатія, hierarchy ієрархія, lecturer лектор, vegetarian вегетаріанський, condense конденсувати, criticize критикувати, stabilize стабілізувати, seriously серйозно, economic економічний, etc. Translating of genuine and mixed-type international compounds is performed on the basis of and in accordance with the lingual form and structure of their componental parts. As a result, English international compounds can be rendered in the following ways:
Mixed-type compounds consisting of international and common Ukrainian root morphemes are translated in accordance with their complex nature. Their equivalents in Ukrainian, however, may be both compound words and word-combinations consisting of international and non-international (as in the original) component parts (or even simple words): gas-mask протигаз, taxi-cab таксі, river-basin басейн річки, toilet-table туалетний столик, to/pedo-boaf торпедний катер, turning-point поворотний пункт, etc. 4. Descriptive Translating of International Lexemes Many genuine international lexemes are semantically condensed and can be translated into the target language only in a descriptive way. Depending on the nature of the lexemes, their translation may have two somewhat different realizations:
5. Translating by Way of Synonymous Substitution An international lexeme of the target language can be often substituted in the process of translation for another international lexeme of synonymous or close to it (or of the same) meaning. The substitutions are mostly performed in larger context, though sometimes they may also be carried out at language level. This kind of substitution becomes possible due to the existence in the target language of internationalisms borrowed by it at different previous historical periods. Such international lexemes are of the same logico-grammatical/lexico-grammatical class. The faithfulness of translation achieved through this kind of synonymous substitutions may be usually established in a text, at word level or at word-group leevel. The existence of some equivalent internationalisms for a notion is explained by its contacts in different periods with different languages. Cf. base (Greek) база, фундамент (Lat.); elixir (Arab.+Greek) еліксир, панацея (Greek); Fata Morgana (Ital.) фата морґана, міраж(Fr.); diagram (Greek) діаграма, графік (Ibid.), схема (Ibid.); fashion (Fr.) фасон, мода (Fr.+Latin); athletics (Greek) атлетика, гімнастика (Ibid.), ect. Such kind of translation presents, of course, an equivalent conveying of meaning and structurtural forms. 138 139
  TRANSLATING OF LOAN INTERNATIONALISMS
Forming a common fund of lexicon in different languages of a geographical area, the loan units usually retain an identical/similar surface structure, i.e., form of a word, word-combination or sentence. Like genuine internationalisms, they are constantly appearing in different languages as a result of unceasing progress in various domains of science, technology and culture. A great many of international loans have long become an integral part of each language's lexicon. Despite all that, they preserve in each national language the unity of their componental parts, i.e., their structural peculiarly, an absolutely identical notional meaning and a common sphere of functioning: loudspeaker: Germ. Lautsprecher, Ital. altoparlante, Ukr. гучномовець, Russ. громкоговоритель; steam-engine: Germ. Dampfmaschine, Ital. macchina a vapore, Ukr. парова машина, Russ. паровая машина; long/short waves (radio), Germ. /ange/fcurzeWellen, Ital. onde lunge/ code, Ukr. довгі/короткіхвилі, Russ. длинньїе/короткие волньї, etc. A bulk of international loan words and expressions are used to designate various grammatical, lexicological, stylistic and other notions. Depending on their nature, as well as on their denotative meaning and their sphere of functioning, international loan units can be rendered into Ukrainian in one of the following three ways: a) by direct translation of the componental parts without changing considerably their structural form cf.: coefficient of afficiency коефіцієнт корисної дії, conjugation/declension дієвідмінювання/ відмінювання (слів); genitive/dative case родовий/давальний відмінок; personal/possessive pronouns особові/присвійні займенники; prepositional government прийменникове керування; compound nominal predicate складений іменний присудок; literal/ verbal translation буквальний/дослівний переклад, etc. Note. It is worth mentioning that some Ukrainian or Russian loan internationalisms may be genuine internationalisms in other languages and vice versa. Thus, підмет, присудокапб other parts of the sentence are genuine internationalisms in English, German, Italian and in some other West European languages. Cf.: the subject, the predicate, the object; German: derSubjekt, das Pradicat, das Objekt; Italian: il soggetto, il predicate etc. Consequently, these and other loan internationalisms are practically rendered only with the help of the phonological level units, i.e., they are trancsribed or transliterated in these three languages.
SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION 1. Types and kinds of genuine internationalisms as to their form/ structure and lexical meaning in English and Ukrainian.
5. Expand on the ways of translation of the genuine internationalisms and exemplify: a) the method of their transliteration only; b) the method of their transcription only; c) the method of their transliteration and partial transcription or vice versa (as in compound 140 141
words); d) the method of the translator's transcription; e) the descriptive method. Use the exercises below to illustrate the above-mentioned methods of conveying the meanings of internationalisms.
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