Р. П. Мильруд Доктор педагогических наук, профессор кафедры иностранных языков
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| relationships between variables. To test the hypothesis you utilize another characteristics, the collection of quantitative
data. A further important characteristic is controls to allow the testing of hypotheses, that is ways of being sure that the outcome being measured (the dependent variable) is caused by the predicted phenomena alone (the independent vari- able) rather than unpredicted variables. In order to pursue the principle of scientific rigour, the deductive approach dic- tates that the researcher should be independent of what is being observed. An additional important characteristic of de- duction is that concepts need to be operationalised in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively. Reduction- ism is the next important principle which holds that problems as a whole are better understood if they are reduced to the simplest possible elements. The final characteristic of the deductive approach is generalization – the making of more widely applicable propositions based upon the process of deduction from specific cases. 4. The emergence of the social sciences in the 20 th century led social science researchers to be wary of the deduc- tive approach. They were critical of an approach that enabled a cause-effect link to be made between particular vari- ables without an understanding of the way in which humans interpreted their social world. Developing such an under- standing is, of course, a strength of inductive research. In an inductive approach theory would follow data rather than vice versa as in the deductive approach. Research using the inductive approach would be particularly concerned with the context in which such events were taking place. Researchers in this tradition are more likely to work with qualitative data and to use a variety of methods to collect these data in order to establish different views of phenomena. 5. Research strategy is a general plan of how you will go about answering the research question(s) you have set. It will contain clear objectives, derived from your research question(s), specify the sources from which you intend to col- lect data, and consider the constraints that you will inevitably have (for example access to data, time, location and money, ethical issues). The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography, action research. Experiment is a classical form of research that owes much to the natural sciences, although it features strongly in much social science research, particularly psychology. It will involve typically: • definition of a theoretical hypothesis; • selection of samples of individuals from known populations; • allocation of samples to different experimental conditions; • introduction of planned change on one or more of the variables; • measurement on a small number of the variables; • control of other variables. The survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach. It is a popular and common strategy in business and management research. Surveys allow the collection of a large amount of data from a sizable population in a highly economical way. Often obtained by using a questionnaire, these data are standardized, allowing easy compari- son. In addition, the survey strategy is perceived as authoritative by people in general. This is because it is easily under- stood. Every day a newspaper reports the results of a new survey that indicates, for example, that a certain percentage of the population thinks or behaves in a particular way. Case study is a strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence. This strategy will be of particular interest to you if you wish to gain a rich understanding of the context of the research and the process being enacted. The case study strategy also has considerable ability to generate answers to the question ‘why?’ as well as ‘what?’ and ‘how?’ ques- tions. The data collection methods employed may be various. They may include questionnaires, interviews, observation, documentary analysis. Grounded theory is often thought of as the best example of the inductive approach, although this conclusion would be too simplistic. It is better to think of it as ‘theory building’ through a combination of induction and deduction. In grounded theory, data collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework. Theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations. These data lead to the generation of predictions that are then tested in further observations which may confirm, or otherwise, the predictions. Constant reference to the data to develop and test theory leads us to understanding grounded theory as an inductive/deductive approach. Ethnography is also firmly rooted in the inductive approach. It emanates from the field of anthropology. The pur- pose is to interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they interpret it. This is obviously a research strategy that is very time consuming and takes place over an extended time period. The research process needs to be flexible and responsive to change since the researcher will constantly be developing new patterns of thought about what is being observed. Action research is a strategy which is concerned with a management of a change and involving close collaboration between practitioners and researchers. Action research differs from other forms of applied research because of its explicit focus on action, in particular promoting change within the organization. Its purpose is not just describe, understand and explain the world but also to change it. 6. Regardless of the strategy you are pursuing your research may be either cross-sectional or longitudinal. Cross-sectional research is the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time, i.e. a ‘snapshot’. Longitudi- nal study is the study of a particular phenomenon over an extended period of time. Cross-sectional studies often employ the survey strategy. They may describe the incidence of a phenomenon (for example, a survey of the IT skills possessed by managers in one organization at a given point of time). The main strength of longitudinal research is the capacity that it has to study change and development For example, you may be studying the change in manufacturing processes in one company over a period of year. This would be a longitudinal case study. 7. It would be misleading to think that research approaches and strategies exist in isolation. Not only is it perfectly possible to combine them within the same piece of research, but it is often beneficial to do so. The first major advantage of employing multi-methods in the same study is that different methods can be used for different purposes in a study. You may wish to employ, for example, interviews, in order to get a feel for the key issues before embarking on a questionnaire. The second advantage of combining methods is that it enables triangulation to take place. It means the use of two or more dependent sources of data or data collection methods within one study in order to ensure that data are telling you what you think they are telling you. 8. Two particular emphases on research design should be paid attention to: reliability and validity. Reliability can be assessed by posing the following three questions: 1) will the measures yield the same results on other occasions? 2) will similar observations be reached by other observers? 3) is there transparency in how sense was made from the raw data? Validity is assessed by the extent to which: 1) data collection method or methods accurately measure what they were intended to measure; 2) research findings are really about what they profess to be about; 3) your findings may be equally applicable to other research settings, i.e. the extent to which they are generalis- able. |