Навчально-методичний посібник для практичних занять та самостійної роботи студентів Полтава 2012

a) to mark time; to play second fiddle; to hide behind smb's back; to be in the same boat; to be cut of the same cloth; to sit on the fence; to draw in one's horns; to spread like wildfire; to win with a small margin; to make no bones about smt; to play into smb's hands; to show one's true colours; to twist the lion's tail; to send smb to Coventry; to have some strings attached; to turn back the clock; to throw cards on the table; to put one's weight behind smt; (to sell smt) lock, stock and barrel; (to swallow smt) hook, line and sinker; to run the gauntlet; to strike a bargain; to take a bee-line; to stroke smb against the hair; to turn King's evidence; to touch wood; to shoot the cat; to die a dog`s death; to dine with Duke Humphrey; to cut off with a shilling; to beat about the bush; to wear sackcloth and ashes; to beat someone fair and square; to be a big fish in a little pond; between the devil and the deep blue sea; to breathe fire and brimstone;

b) Tommy Atkins; tin Lizzie; tough customer; wild-goose chase; within the framework of smt; yellow dog contract; with the tongue in one's cheek; with a vengeance; a smart Alec(k); shadow boxing; half seas over; red tape; the tables were turned; Croesus; Yankee; Jack Ketch; Hobson`s choice; odd/queer fish; Canterbury tale; blue bonnet; a grass widow; Uncle Sam; Uncle Tom; bright-eyed and bushy-tailed;

c) by George; by and by; for the sake of; to cut short; to make believe; topsy-turvy; higgledy-piggledy; high and dry; cut and run; touch and go; Tom, Dick and Harry; fifty-fifty; O.K.; to make sure; to give a start;

перейти (на віку як на довгій ниві, всього буває). 11. Кров у жилах холоне. 12. Тричі відміряй (одмір), а раз відріж (утни). 13. Більший католик, ніж папа римський. 14. Голий як бубон. 15. Не всі дома (однієї клепки не вистачає). 16. Сказав як зав'язав (сказано – зроблено). 17. Пальцем не поворухне. 18. Старого не перевчиш (вченого вчити — тільки час марнувати). 19. Не вчи вченого. 20. Купити (купувати) кота в мішку. 21. Танцювати під чиюсь дудку. 22. Носити воду в решеті. 23. Підносити когось до небес. 24. Гарна як квітка (як яблучко). 25. Гарний як червінець. 26. Не мати копійки за душею. 27. Сорочки на плечах не мати. 28. Ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку. 29. Вставляти палиці комусь в колеса. 30. Гордість (пиха) до добра не доводить. 31.Обіцяти золоті гори. 32. Дурість заразлива. 33. Один у полі не воїн. 34. Від великого до смішного – один крок. 35. Шукати вчорашнього дня. 36. Білий як стіна (як крейда, як полотно). 37. Іван киває на Петра.

1. 
   Thus, we shall have from the Prime Minister even more demagogy and pie-in-
   

The penetration of a nation's specific notions into other national languages is realized in different historical periods through various channels and in most different conditions. The latter include first of all trade contacts in the process of which many notions are borrowed as designators for the things which they signify. The designators may be regular labels (or trade marks) like bacon, champagne, jam, jeans, coca-cola, corn-flakes, macaroni, samovar, vodka, spaghetti, sweater, tweed, whisky, etc.

Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through the literary/historical works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television: oasis, boycott, Labourist, pagoda, picket, taboo, Tory, ricks-haw, sauna, Soviet, etc.

These and other specific national terms (and notions) found their way to different languages and in the course of some historical time they have become internationalisms. The more important the specific notion is for a certain nation, the more often it is used in the everyday life of the community, the greater is the possibility of its becoming international.

But the overwhelming majo­rity of other specific national notions in all languages remain within the boundaries of the language of its origin. Moreover they may sometimes be unknown even to a greater part of the natio­nal community. These may be archaic notions like the Uk­rainian бунчук, виборний, осаул, тулумбас, сіряк or loca­lisms like кулеша, плачипда, бакуш, etc. Besides, many other rather wide-spread and well-known specific notions in a national community may often be of minor importance for the target language communities which live under dif­ferent economic, social, cultural or geographical conditions. An ordinary reader, say, would pay little if any attention to the highly specific and unique for every Englishman notions like kedgerel (meals), proctor, whip (in Parliament), the Eton and Harrow match, Charing Cross, the East End or Bloomsbury. These specific names are often ment­ioned in English prose, especially in the works by the British authors like Galsworthy, Cronin and others. So the names have to be explained to our readers in the footnotes or in commentaries to the novels, e. g.:

The meaning of the above-given English and Ukrainian specific national words has not been conveyed by way of translation proper. They have simply been explained in the target language. Sometimes each or some of the components, making up the unit of specific national lexicon, can also be directly translated. And yet it may turn insufficient for the faithful conveying of their sense. Then an explanation of the specific national notion is added: alphabet soup азбучний cуп з макаронів, що мають форму літер абетки, піонерська лінійка young pioneers parade/line up, учнівські правила school regulations and rules of pupils' behaviour; класний журнал register/form register and record book.

It is difficult for the foreign student to guess the real meaning of the specific national unit even from the seemingly transparent, lexical meaning of its component parts. To avoid misunderstanding and ambiguity further explication becomes inevitable: Athens of the North (поет.) Північні Афіни (Единбург); сubbing полювання на лисиць (у якому беруть участь початкуючі мисливці й молоді собаки-гончаки); question time день запитань (у палаті громад від 14.45 до 15.30 з понеділка по четвер; відповіді дають прем'єр-міністр і міністри); privy purse приватний гаманець (асигнування державного бюджету на утримання монарха Великобританії).

This is not so with many other notions which only at first sight seem to be different in English and Ukrainian hut in reality are quite similar and can usually be substituted for each other: box (Christmas box) різдвяний подарунок (сf. новорічний подарунок); Department of Education and Science міністерство освіти і науки; Department of Industries міністерство промисловості; Department of Energy міністерство енергетики; extramural education заочне і вечірнє навчання.

As may have been noticed the units of specific national lexicon are rarely similar by their nature and meaning in either of the two languages. That is why there exist various approaches to conveying their meanings in the target language which can hardly be called translation proper.
Conveying of Meanings of Specific Units of National Lexicon.
The choice of the way of conveying the denotative mean­ing of the units of national lexicon is strictly predetermined by definite factors which may be both of a lingual or extra-lingual nature. To these first of all belongs the semantic and structural complexity (or otherwise) of the units of specific national lexicon in the source language. Besides, the way of translating may also be predetermined by the specific notion being new and not yet known or by its long tradition of usage in the target language. The choice of the way of translating may partly be influenced by the sphere of circulation of a specific notion in the source language too. Last but not least the choice can also depend on the trans­lator himself and upon the aim or purpose of translating/ interpreting. One can consequently assume the existence of several ways оf conveying the lexical meaning of the units of national lexicon. Each of the ways is to be considered quite reliable if it provides for the faithful expression of the main and specific sense of the source language unit in the target language.

Since the nature, the structure, the sphere of employ­ment and the denotative meanings of different specific units of lexicon are rarely of the same “extension” their ways of trans­lating cannot be uniform either. Depending on the aforemen­tioned factors, the following ways of conveying the meaning of specific national lexicon units can be recognized as quite reliable:

In many a case the lingual form of a unit of specific national lexicon conveyed in transcription or transliteration cannot provide for a full expression of its lexical meaning. Then an additional explication of its sense becomes neces­sary. It happens when the unit of specific national lexicon is introduced in the target language for the first time or when it is not yet known to the broad public. The explanation may be given either in the translation/interpretation itself or in a footnote – when a lengthy explication becomes necessary.

*Уайтхол – вулиця в центрі Лондона, де знаходяться урядові установи(переню уряд Великої Британії).

*Даунінг-Стріт №10 і11 відповідно резиденції прем`єр-міністра і лорда-канцлера Великої Британії.

*Треднідл-Стріт – вулиця в Сіті, де розташовано головні банки Великої Британії.

Anybody in this country can see that вареники are not simply dumplings i.e. small balls of dough which саn be cooked in soup or stew but dough wrapped around some salted/sweetish curd with fresh egg or mashed potatoes, fried sauerkraut, etc. boiled and served hot with butter and sour cream or fried bacon and onion respectively. Neither is куліш something like a thick meat stew. Besides, kulish not always and not in all regions of the Ukraine is pre­pared thick.

No need to emphasize that such lengthy explanations of specific notions are really needed in the text of a translation/interpretation Quite often an explanation in the target language text may be sufficient enough as in the following examples:

The Tommies were num­bered, formed fours, right turned and marched away... . (Ibid.)

When the component parts of specific units of national lexicon themselves constitute their semantic meaning that is obvious a faithful translation can be achieved by calques: first (second, third) reading перше (друге, третє) читання (офіційне внесення законопроекту в англійський парламент); secondary grammar school середня граматична школа (Великобританія); стінгазета wall newspaper; сту­дентське наукове товариство Students' Scientific/Research Society; : Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) Армія порятунку; the Order of the Garter/of the Bath орден Під­в'язки/Лазні; the Order of St. Michael and St. George орден св. Михаїла і св. Георгія; fan club клуб прихильників-yболівальників (артиста, спортсмена тощо).

And still in some cases these units lose their proper lexical meaning as well as their nationally specific nature. That happens because the real connotative meaning of the semes bearing the national peculiarity cannot be conveyed by these ways of translation. Say, the House of Lords when translated as будинок лордів completely changes the real meaning of the phrase as House here, when capitalized always preserves the connotative meaning of палата. So the House of Commons can be translated only as палата громад.

But the proper meaning of other specific units of national lexicon can be conveyed by way of regular translation of all or some of their component parts and an explanation of the denotative meaning in the source language. The combined approach in the treatment of this group of national lexicon units is called forth by the complexity of meaning of the source language units.

Therefore the conveying of meanings of these units practically involves two simultaneous performances. The first is a regular translation of the main, if not all, component parts and the next, which follows it, is a more or less full explanation of the essence of the specific national element in the source language. The extent of the explanat­ion in the target language is determined by the nature of the specific unit of national lexicon, by the purpose of translation, and also by the possibilities of the text in which the unit is used. In separate translation (out of a text) the explanation is practically unrestricted: Battle of Britain “Битва за Англію” (повітряні бої над територією Великої Британії, особливо в районі Лондона й Південної Англії в 1940—1941р.); bull's eye “бичаче око” (круглий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник); ginger ale імбірний ель, імбірне ситро (безалкогольний газований напій); inner Cabinet “внутрішній кабінет” (кабінет у вузькому складі, на чолі з прем'єр-міністром).

Such explanations cannot naturally be made in the text of a translation, so they are given usually in the footnotes:

“Well, I can tell you anything that is in an Eng­lish bluebook, Harry.” (O. Wilde)

“Ну, я тобі можу розповісти все. що написанo в англійській “Синій книзі”.

*”Синя книга” – збірка документів, що видається з санкції парламенту у синіх палітурках.

*”День праці” – офіційне свято в СШA (перший понеділок вересня).

*Салат на ім`я австралійської співачки Н.Мельба.

When the lexical meaning of the unit of specific national lexicon is not so complex it is usually explained in the target language text. The explanation, of course, is not always as exhaustive as it can be in a footnote:

Keep your fingers crossed for me! (M. Wilson)

Щоб мені була вдача, склади навхрест пальці!

I knew the Professor before he turned into a woolу West-Ender. ( A. Cronin)

Я знав цього професора ще до того, як він став ба­гатієм аристократичного Уест-Енду.

Левкові чи не вперше за своє парубкування стало чомусь тоскно. (М. Стельмах)

It was probably for the first time in all his mature boyhood that Levko felt somewhat dull.

Згадав він поради свої... і сільські весілля, на яких він грав весільного батька. (М. Коцюбинський)

He recollected the pieces of advice he had once given... and the rural weddings at which he would perform the honorary duty of bride­groom's or bride's father.
Translation by Means of Analogies.
Despite the differences in economic, social, political, cultural and quite often in geographical environmental conditions, under which the nation of the source language and that of the target language develop, some specific notions in their languages may be similar/analogous in meaning and functioning. It happens due to the existence of common routine or habitual actions, common occupations, social services, etc. in the two language communities.

The appearance of analogous units in the national specific layer of lexicon in different languages may also be the result of bilateral or multilateral contacts and influences to which the nations have been exposed for centuries. Conse­quently similar/analogous specific notions in different lan­guages may appear as a result of direct or indirect borrowings. No wonder that analogous units of national lexicon directly correlate in the source lan­guage and in the target language in their denotative meaning and mostly in the common sphere of their functioning social, cultural, political, etc. Naturally, the connotative differences and sometimes the sphere of use may not always fully coin­cide in the target language as can be seen from the follow­ing few examples: the City/Town Board of Education міський відділ освіти; gingerbread ковріжка; shopsteward голова профкому, stewed fruit узвар/компот; залік preliminary qualifying test/ examination; дипломна робота graduation essay/project; курсова робота yearly essay/project; доцент lecturer/reader or assistant professor; курси підвищення кваліфікації/вдосконалення refresher course; кватирка hinged window pane, pilot window. Their real denotative meaning of some units can be understood from a larger context only.

As can be seen the choice of an appropriate analogy in the target language is greatly influenced by the national/ cultural traditions (сі. пани sirs/gentlemen; кобзар minst­rel). The use of various analogies in the target language is largely due to the existence of many translations. Especially strong is the influence of translation of belles-lettres works and films. Under the influence of this and other factors the units soon become well known to the majority of the target language speakers. It is in this way that many English and American specific notions have be­come familiar in this country and still more Sovietisms penetrated into the English and other languages. These units of specific national lexicon have become regular internationalisms: пені, паунд, Торі, бойкот, віскі, джентльмен, джинси, клуб, леді, мотель, нокаут, пікнік, пінчер, раунд, рекорд­смен, ринг, смокінг, спікер, тариф, фут, ярд; Bolshevik, pioneer, Komsomol, sputnik, Soviet, etc.

But sometimes a faithful translation of analogous units of specific national lexicon can be achieved only with the help of an additional explication as in the examples like special school спеціальна школа (початкова або середня для дітей із психічними чи фізичними вадами), summer school літня школа (курс лекцій, семінарів, практичних занять для підвищення кваліфікації вчителів та іноземних студен­тів).

It is easy to notice that the denotative meaning of the above given units is practically identical in English and Ukrainian.The difference is in some extra linguistic details which must be known to the translator.
Exercise 1. Explain the proper meaning of the English specific notions below. Translate them into Ukrainian.

(No)10.Downing Street, Whitehall, the Upper House, the Commons, the woolsack, speaker (Parliament), the White paper, division of the House; the Stock Exchange; John Bull, the British Lion; lobby, ladyship, lordship, peerage, coroner, proctor; soda fountain; bacon, Yorkshire pudding, frankfurters, hot dogs; ale, gin; crown, farthing, guinea, sixpence, private/ independent school, comprehensive (grammar, modern) school, the 6th form; jeans, Jersey, pullover, tweed; wigwam; bushel, foot, inch, pint, sheriff; soda fountain, Uncle Tom, Uncle Sam, the White House, pink slip, boy scouts, camp fire girls, Jim Crow.

1. In many parts of Great Britain, the custom of First-footing in the early hours of January 1st is kept with great vigour. The First Foot comes as soon as possible after midnight has struck. The First Foot is traditionally supposed to influence fortunes of the householders in the following twelve months.

2. The Old and unusual game known as the Hood Game, or Throwing the Hood, is played every year on Old Christmas Day, January 6th at Haxey in north Lincolnshire. The ceremonies of Haxey Hood begin in the early afternoon with the procession of the Fool and his twelve Boggans up the village street to a small green place outside the parish church. The Boggans are the official team and play against all comers. Chief among them is the King Boggan, or Lord of the Hood, who carries a wand, or roll of thirteen willows as a badge of office. He and all his team should wear scarlet flannel coats and hats wreathed with red flowers. The “hoods” used in the game bear no resemblance to the headgear from which they are supposed to take their name. The main hood, or Leather Hood, is a two-foot length of thick rope encased in stout leather. The lesser “hoods” are tightly rolled pieces of canvas, tied with ribbons.

3. Jack-in-the-Green is that very ancient figure who represents the summer. As Green George, or the Wild Man, his counterparts exist all over Europe. In England, he takes the form of a man encased in a high wickerwork cage, which completely covers him and is in its turn entirely smothered in green branches, leaves and flowers. Only his eyes are visible, looking through the hole cut in the cage, and his feet below the level of the wickerwork. Sometimes he goes about alone, some­times with only a few attendants, and a musician or two.

4. Egg-shackling takes place on Easter Monday, or Ducking Monday, as it is often called in Eastern Europe. Young men splash unmarried girls vigo­rously with water. The girls are, of course, expected to submit with good grace, and even, in some areas, to pay for the privilege with gifts of painted eggs, or glasses of brandy.
Exercise3. Read the story and pick up the words of specific English lexicon. Suggest the ways for conveying their mea­nings and translate the story into Ukrainian.

AN ENGLISHMAN'S DAY.

An Englishman's day—and who better to describe it than an Englishman's wife? It begins when, ignoring me, he sits down to breakfast with his morning paper.

As he scans the headlines (or the racing results), there is nothing he likes better than his favourite breakfast of cornflakes with milk and sugar (porridge if he lives in the North) followed by fried bacon and eggs, marmalade and toast, the whole accompanied by tea or coffee.

However, whether he in fact gets such a meal depends on the state of my housekeeping budget!

After breakfast, except on Sundays and (in many cases) Saturdays which are holidays, he sets off to work by train, tube, bus, car, motor scooter, motor bike or even on his own two feet.

The time he sets out depends in large degree upon whether he is what might colloquially be termed a “striver” (one who works himself), a “driver” (one who sees that others work) or a “thriver” (one who profits from others' work).

If he is a “striver”, he will jostle along with thousands like him on the 7.20, probably still reading his paper (or anybody else's) and studying the success (or otherwise) of his favourite team.

The “drivers” customarily depart about an hour later while the “thrivers” travel up to the City in great style about another hour later.

However, be he “striver”, “driver” or “thriver”, he will enjoy his tea or coffee break around about 11. The tea or coffee is usually brought to the factory bench or office desk.

Then, at mid-day, everything stops for lunch. Most offi­ces and small shops close for an hour, say from 1 to 2, and the city pavements are thronged with people on their way to cafes. Factory workers usually eat in their canteens.

The usual mid-day meal usually consists of two courses – a meat course accompanied by plenty of vegetables, followed by a sweet dish, perhaps fruit pudding and custard with tea or coffee to finish.

Most Englishmen like what they call “good plain food, not messed about with”. They must be able to recognize what they are eating. Otherwise, they are likely to refuse it. Usually they like beefsteaks, chops, roast beef and Yorkshire pudding and fried fish and chipped potatoes.

They are in the main not overfond of soup, remarking that it fills them without leaving sufficient room for the more important meat course. Then back to work again, with another break in the middle of the afternoon, once again for tea or coffee, sometimes with a cake or biscuit.

The working day finishes at time between 4 and 6, with, the “thrivers” usually first home and the “strivers” last. On arrival home, many Englishmen seem to like to inspect their gardens before their evening meal.

This goes under various names – tea, high tea, dinner or supper depending upon its size and also the social stand­ing of those eating it. Usually a savoury meat course is followed by stewed fruit or cake and tea.

His evening meal over, the Englishman might do a bit of gardening and then have a walk to the “local” for a “quick one”. The “local” means the nearest beer house while a “quick one” means a drink (alcoholic, of course!) taking anything from half-an-hour to three hours to imbibe! There is plenty of lively, congenial company at the “local” and he can play darts, dominoes, billiards or discuss the weather or the current situation.

However, if the Englishman stays at home he might listen to the radio, watch television, talk, read or pursue his favourite hobby. Then at any time between 10 and 12, he will have his “nightcap” – a drink accompanied by a snack and then off to bed ready for tomorrow. (S.Andrews)

The main characteristic feature of internationalisms, single words or word-combinations, is that their lexical identity or similarity is found both at language level and speech level, i.e. in a text.

This group of units embraces, as many linguists believe, apart from many thousands of genuine international words and word-combinations which retain in several languages an identical or similar lingual form and identical meaning many international translation loan units. These have a generally common structural form (of word, word-combination) but rarely a similarity in sounding. The loan internationalisms are mostly different terms: citric acid лимонна кислота, lead oxide окис свинцю, specific gravity питома вага, nonconductivity непровідність; phraseological units (Greek, Latin or modern): Heel of Achilles ахілесова п'ята, sword of Damocles дамоклов меч, to cross the Rubicon перейти Рубікон, the die is cast жереб кинуто, after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп, the fair sex прекрасна стать, tilt at windmills воювати з вітряками; regular mots and proverbs (of Latin, French, English, German origin): sine qua nоn неодмінна умова, status in statu держава у державі, repetitio est mater studiorum(Lat.) повторення мати навчання, sotto voce тихо, finita la commedia (ItaL.) настав кінець, da ist der Hund Begraben! (Germ.) ось де собака заритий, 0. К. all right (Engl.) все добре, с'est la vie (Fr.) таке життя.

The use of loan idioms is restricted in all languages to belles-lettres, partly to social and political texts and to conversational speech style. These idioms are also occasionally used in didactic style and are practically not used in scientific and technical matter texts.

We must bear in mind that in many internationalisms there is no absolute literal coincidence in the source language and in the target language: basketball баскетбол, shilling шилінг, waltz вальс, степ steppe, указ ukase, etc.

International lexemes are adopted in all languages according to the historically established traditions of their own and find their expression in stereotype models (bankruptcy in Eng., bankeroti in Germ., banqueroute in Fr. or bancarotta in Ital. but «банкрутство» in Ukrainian). This kind of adopting internationalisms is sometimes called a “practical transcribing”.

Some internationalisms may retain still less similarity/likeness in their lingual form when translated from English into Ukrainian: bachelor бакалавр, cocoa какао, crown корона, dance танок, giant гігант, grade градус, hocus-pocus фокус, mother-of-pearl перламутр, mosque мечеть, oil олія, outpost аванпост, papal папський, pound фунт, etc.

Many units in English and Ukrainian do not fully coincide in their orthographic, sounding and morphological (structural) form. This is to be explained by the differences in the phonetic and morphological systems of the two languages and also by the possible influence of a third language as an intermediary between the source/target language and the language from which the international lexeme originates. To convey faithfully the denotative meaning and the lingual form of these internationalisms other ways of translating can be employed.

b) the lingual form of the internationalism is not or can not be retained in the target language. It happens when the internationalism has not been adopted by the target language. Thus the noun epilogue is a genuine internationalism in many European languages but the adjective еріlogic derived from it, though semantically quite obvious, is unknown in Ukrainian and is rendered as заключний, ключовий, кінцевий.

The identification of genuine or loan internationalisms presents no difficulty so far as the monosemantic language units are concerned. That is explained by the terminological nature of the signs which are used to signify social, political, scientific, technical, cultural and other notions (cf. parliament, theatre, theory, poet, arithmetic, artillery, botany, phoneme, suffix, theorem, proton, volt, decimal fra­ctions, sputnik, space probe, etc.).

In Ukrainian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which are rarely observed in present-day English. As a result most of international words in Ukrai­nian are structurally more complicated than in English (cf. apathy апатія, dietic дієтичний, form форма, exploit експлуатувати).

Some international words, however, may be structurally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Greek: analysis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philosopher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appen­dicitis апендицит, tuberculosis туберкульоз, rheumatism ревматизм.