С. Торайгырова англо – русско – казахский терминологический словарь для химико – биологических специальностей

12 ounces, beats 70 to 80 times a minute, and is enclosed by a sturdy membrane called pericardium. Its chambers are lined by a delicate membrane, the endocardium, and its vigorous muscular and connective tissues are nourished by the heart’s own blood vessels, the coronary vessels.

This remarkable muscle serves as a pump controlling the blood stream in two circuits, the pulmonary and the systemic. The right side of the heart receives the blood from the large veins that drain the systemic circuit and propels it into the lungs where carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is picked up. The oxygenated blood, collecting in the pulmonary veins, than enters the left side of the heart, from which it is pumped out again into the systemic circulation by way of the body’s largest blood vessel, the aorta. The rhythmic pumping is in the form of a repeated contraction ( systole ) and relaxation (diastole). Every 60 seconds, this precisely adjusted human pump drives about five quarts of blood through the body.

The four chambers of the heart have special roles in the pumping process.

The upper chambers are called the auricles; the lower chambers, the ventricles. The auricle and ventricle on each side together form an independent part of the heart, somewhat like a duplex apartment; in effect, they make up a “right heart” and a “left heart”. There is no connection for the blood into the pulmonary circuit, the left into the general body circuit.

Between the right auricle and right ventricle is a valve, called the tricuspid valve. Similarly, the left auricle and left ventricle are connected by the mitral valve, so named because of its apparent resemblance to a bishop’s miter or tall cap. The sounds of the valves opening and closing are heard by the doctor when he listens with his stethoscope. In addition to the valves between auricle and ventricle on each side of the heart, there are valves at the blood’s exit points: the pulmonary valve opening from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, and the aortic valve opening from the left ventricle into the aorta. All these valves, both within the heart and leading out of it, open shut in such a way is to keep the blood flowing only in one direction through the heart’s two separate pairs of chambers: from auricle to ventricle and out through its appropriate artery.

Although the right and left sides of the heart serve two separate branches of the circulation, each with its distinct function, they are co-ordinated so that the heart efficiently serves both sides with a single pumping action. The valve action on both sides is also co-ordinated with the two phases of the pumping action. Thus, during the diastole, or relaxation phase, the oxygen-poor blood which was accumulated in the right auricle returning from the systemic or body circulation pours into the right ventricle. At the same time, the oxygen-rich blood which was accumulated in the left auriclereturning from the pulmonary circulation pours into the left ventricle. The weak walls of both auricles contract to press the blood into the relaxed ventricles. In the next or contraction phase, the systole, the valve between auricle and ventricle on each side closes, and the muscular walls contract the ventricles and sweep the blood through each passage into the pulmonary artery and the aorta. At the end of the contraction the pulmonary and aortic valves snap shut, preventing any backward surge of the blood to the ventricles. The diastole follows, the ventricles again fill with the flow from their separate auricles and the cycle is repeated. This co-ordinated rhythmic action goes on tirelessly day and night throughout every individual’s lifetime.
Text 5 Symbiotic Relationships.
Symbiosis is a close, long-lasting physical relationship between two different species. In other words, the two species are usually in physical contact and at least one of them derives some sort of benefit from this contact. There are three different categories of symbiotic relationships: parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.

Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism, known as the parasite, lives in or or. another organism, known as the host, from which it derives nourishment. Generally, the parasite is much smaller than the host. Although the host is harmed by the interaction, it is generally not killed immediately by the parasite, and some host individuals may live a long time and be relatively little affected by their parasites. Some parasites are much more destructive than others, however. Newly established parasite/host relationships are likely to be more destructive than those that have a long evolutionary history. With a longstanding interaction between the parasite and the host, the two species generally evolve in such a way that they can accommodate one another. It is not in the parasite’s best interest to kill its host. If it does, it must find another. Likewise, the host evolves defenses against the parasite, often reducing the harm done by the parasite to a level the host can tolerate.

Parasites that live on the surface of their hosts are known as ectoparasites. Fleas, lice, and some molds and mildews are examples of ectoparasites. Many other parasites, like tapeworms, malaria parasites, many kinds of bacteria, and some fungi, are called endoparasites because they live inside the bodies of their hosts. A tapeworm lives in the intestines of its host where it is able to resist being digested and makes use of the nutrients in the intestine.

Even plants can be parasites. Mistletoe is a flowering plant that is parasitic on trees. It establishes itself on the surface of a tree when a bird transfers the seed to the tree. It then grows down into the water-conducting tissues of the tree and uses the water and minerals it obtains from these tissues to support its own growth.

If the relationship between organisms is one in which one organism benefits while the other is not affected, it is called commensalism. It is possible to visualize a parasitic relationship evolving into a commensal one. Since parasites generally evolve to do as little harm to their host as possible and the host is combating the negative effects of the parasite, they might eventually evolve to the point where the host is not harmed at all. There are many examples of commensal relationships. Orchids often use trees as a surface upon which to grow. The tree is not harmed or helped, but the orchid needs a surface upon which to establish itself and also benefits by being close to the top of the tree, where it can get more sunlight and rain. Some mosses, ferns, and many vines also make use of the surfaces of trees in this way.

In the ocean, many sharks have a smaller fish known as a remora attached to them. Remoras have a sucker on the top of their heads that they can use to attach to the shark. In this way, they can hitchhike a ride as the shark swims along. When the shark feeds, the remora frees itself and obtains small bits of food that the shark misses. Then, the remora reattaches. The shark does not appear to be positively or negatively affected by remoras.

One soil nutrient that is usually a limiting factor for plant growth is nitrogen. Many kinds of plants, such as beans, clover, and alder trees, have bacteria that live in their roots in little nodules. The roots form these nodules when they are infected with certain kinds of bacteria. The bacteria do not cause disease but provide the plants with nitrogen-containing molecules that the plants can use for growth. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria from the living site and nutrients that the plants provide, and the plants benefit from the nitrogen they receive.

Another major thermoregulatory adaptation that evolved in mammals and birds is insulation (hair, feathers, and fat layers), which reduces the flow of heat and lowers the energy cost of keeping warm. Most land mammals and birds react to cold by raising their fur or feathers, thereby trapping a thicker layer of air. Humans rely more on a layer of fat just beneath the skin as insulation; goose bumps are a vestige of hair-raising left over from our furry ancestors. Vasodilation and vasoconstriction also regulate heat exchange and may contribute to regional temperature differences within the animal. For example, heat loss from a human is reduced when arms and legs cool to several degrees below the temperature of the body core, where most vital organs are located.

Hair loses most of its insulating power when wet. Marine mammals such as whales and seals have a very thick layer of insulation fat called blubber, just under the skin. Marine mammals swim in water colder than their body core temperature, and many species spend at least part of the year in nearly freezing polar seas. The loss of heat to water occurs 50 to 100 times more rapidly than heat loss to air, and the skin temperature of a marine mammal is close to water temperature. Even so, the blubber insulation is so effective that marine mammals maintain body core temperatures of about 36-38⁰ C with metabolic rates about the same as those of land mammals of similar size. The flippers or tall of a whale or seal lack insulating blubber, but countercurrent heat exchangers greatly reduce heat loss in these extremities, as they do in the legs of many birds.

Through metabolic heat production, insulation, and vascular adjustments, birds and mammals are capable of astonishing feats of thermoregulation. For example, small birds called chickadees, which weigh only 20 grams, can remain active and hold body temperature nearly constant at 40⁰C in environmental temperatures as low as - 40⁰C – as long as they have enough food to supply the large amount of energy necessary for heat production.

Many mammals and birds live in places where thermoregulation requires cooling off as well as warming. For example, when a marine mammal moves into warm seas, as many whales do when they reproduce, excess metabolic heat is removed by vasodilation of numerous blood vessels in the outer layer of the skin. In hot climates or when vigorous exercise adds large amounts of metabolic heat to the body, many terrestrial mammals and birds may allow body temperature to rise by several degrees, which enhances heat loss by increasing the temperature gradient between the body and a warm environment.

Evaporative cooling often plays a key role in dissipating the body heat. If environmental temperature is above body temperature, animals gain heat from the environment as well as from metabolism, and evaporation is the only way to keep body temperature from rising rapidly. Panting is important in birds and many mammals. Some birds have a pouch richly supplied with blood vessels in the floor of the mouth; fluttering the pouch increases evaporation. Pigeons can use evaporative cooling to keep body temperature close to 40⁰C in air temperatures as high as 60⁰C, as long as they have sufficient water. Many terrestrial mammals have sweat glands controlled by the nervous system. Other mechanisms that promote evaporative cooling include spreading saliva on body surfaces, an adaptation of some kangaroos and rodents for combating severe heat stress. Some bats use both saliva and urine to enhance evaporative cooling.

People have practiced chemistry since ancient time. The Egyptian, Arabic, Greek, and Roman cultures each contributed significant developments were empirical. That is, they were achieved by trial and error and were not based on any valid theory of matter. The chemists (500-1600 A.D.) whose practical goal was to change base metals into gold and to prolong life, also contributed to the development of chemistry. However, it was not until the 17^th and 18^th centuries that modern chemistry began to develop through systematic experimentation, called the scientific method, is usually credited with being the most important single factor in the development of chemistry ant its application to technology.

Chemistry is related to physics, another basic branch of science. It is also related to biology, the science of life, because life itself is basically a complicated system of interrelated chemical processes.

The range or scope of chemistry is very wide. In fact, it includes the whole universe and every animate (living) and inanimate (nonliving) thing in it. Chemistry may be broadly classified into two main branches: organic chemistry (the chemistry of living things) and inorganic chemistry (the chemistry of nonliving things). Through the study of chemistry we try to learn and understand the principles and laws that control the activity of all matter.

Chemists may try to observe and to explain natural situations, or phenomena, or they may invent experiments that will show the composition and structure of complex substances that are unknown in nature.

Even though the total of chemical knowledge is so enormous that no one could learn all of it in one’s lifetime, the basic concepts are not difficult. In fact, these fundamental concepts in chemistry have become part of the education required for many professionals in a wide variety of fields and they have contributed to the rapid growth of technology.

When Mendeleyev began to teach at St. Petersburg University, chemistry was still far from being the well-ordered and harmonious branch of science that we know today.

The great majority of scientists were firmly convinced that atoms of different elements were in no way connected with each other, and that they were quite independent particles of nature. Only a few advanced scientists realized that there must be a general system of laws which regulates the behaviour of atoms of each and every element. However, the few attempts made Beguyer de Chancourtois, Newlands, Lother Meyer and others to find a system of laws controlling the behaviour of atoms were unsuccessful and experienced to influence on Mendeleyev, the future founder of the Periodical System of Elements.

By comparison of chemical properties of different elements researches had long ago discovered that elements could be placed in several groups according to similarity in their properties.

Mendeleyev applied in his system the principles that he developed and included in his tables the listing of the elements according to increasing weights.

Because he had the insight to see that many elements had not yet been discovered, he left open spaces in the Periodic Table. For example, he predicted that an unknown element with atomic weight of 44 would be found for the space following calcium. And in 1879 the Swedish chemist Lars Fredric Nilson discovered scandium.

Mendeleyev’s table developed into modern Periodic Table, one of the most important tools in chemistry. The vertical columns of the modern Periodic Table are called groups and the horizontal rows are called periods. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom of that element. The modern Periodic Table not only clearly organizes all the elements, it lucidly illustrates that they form “families” in rational groups, based on their characteristics.
Text 9 Organic chemestry
Non-chemical can’t help being surprised to learn that many chemical compounds are obtained from living things. For example, sugars, ethanol, methane, urea, etc.

What all these compounds have in common are the elements carbon and hydrogen. Thus, it can be said that nearly all compounds obtained from living things are carbon compounds.

In the early days of chemistry the compounds obtained from living things were not even thought of to be made in the laboratory. The idea was that there were special processes going on inside the organism (living things). The special processes were believed to be essential for the formation of the compounds. So, chemists considered the compounds from organisms to be somehow special and different from “ordinary” chemicals that could be made in the laboratory. They called chemicals from living things organic chemicals and the others inorganic chemicals.

However, in 1828 a chemist called Wohler showed organic chemicals to be just ordinary chemical substances. He did this by converting an inorganic chemical into an organic one simple by heating it in the laboratory. Gradually, more and more organic chemicals were shown to be just like ordinary chemicals. But we still use the terms “organic” and “inorganic” to divide chemicals into two classes. Nowadays, however, we use the term “organic compounds” to mean carbon compounds, there being some exceptions to the rule.

Most of the organic chemicals we have nowadays are man-made and are obtained directly from organisms. However, the main raw material for manufacturing organic chemicals is petroleum, it having been formed in the past from marine organisms.

Why do we have to separate a branch of chemistry just for carbon compounds? Couldn’t its compounds be included with those of other elements?

There’s a simple reason for keeping carbon compounds separate: there are just too many of them. There are more compounds of carbon than compounds of all the other elements put together. Organic chemistry is sure to be very large branch of chemistry. It includes millions of compounds. Most of these compounds of carbon involving just a few other nonmetallic elements, for example, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens.

Why does carbon have so many more compounds than other elements? What is special about it? The answer to these questions is: carbon atoms have the special property of being able to join together to form chains of atoms. The chains may be short, or they may be hundreds or even thousands of atoms long.

The carbon chain being practically any length, the number of possible hydrocarbons is enormous.
Text 10 Problems and solutions
If a chemist or a physicist or anyone for that matter endeavoured a brief description of the current environmental problems, we would find it troublesome and far exceeding the knowledge of an individual scholar, for the situation with our environment has long become a subject of joint research of scientists from different fields who have to combine their wisdom and information from other domains, with experts in sociology, psychology, philosophy hurriedly coming into the picture.

Yet, to put in briefly, one of the causes of the current situation with our environment should be searched in the lack of development of particular fields of knowledge, and of an adequate picture of the intricately acting whole, which is our planet.

It is man’s intervention in nature that has singled him out from the rest of the animal world since his early days. It is this very intervention that has put him in this highly technological world of ours, with the rate of progress in particular fields being faster than that in our fundamental knowledge of the general operation of the Earth.

It is this very discrepancy between the two rates which appears to be the cause of most of today’s problems. This is by no means an exhaustive explanation, overlooking as it does, the social factor.

The threat to the environment is a demanding problem man has to cope with at the beginning of the 21^st century. What is so peculiar about the environmental crisis when compared to the other menacing problem, that of a nuclear catastrophe? Surely not its global character and everybody’s involvement.

A nuclear catastrophy, as seen nowadays by practically everyone everywhere, would inevitably involve any country, no matter how small or big it is, and would disturb every individual, whatever life might be living. Should it happen, its inescapability is too obvious to be disputed. So is its explosive character.

In contrast to this, the environmental crisis is of an accumulative nature. It is just not clearly understandable and the intricate pattern of interaction of all factors is what makes it is so hazardous. For no single action taken, or decision made, can bring about an immediate catastrophy, nor could there be the last step that would set in motion an avalanche of irrevocable and immediate events leading to the ultimate doomsday. It is only step by step that we approach the critical point, were there such a “point” in this context.

Consequently, what is needed first and foremost is to take close to our hearts the possible adverse impact of the long-range effects of our actions, however noble the motives may seem to us at present, on the entire human civilization. Should we fully realize the danger, quite a new approach to the problem would appear.

Damage to the layer of ozone in the high atmosphere by human activity is complex, esoteric, and completely invisible to anyone but the scientists who are studying the issue. Yet, around the world, people who twenty years ago had never heard the word ozone are now worried about its disappearance.

Two of these substances, CFC-11 and CFC-12, have proved so valuable in a number of applications that more than 20 million tons have been manufactured worldwide. Most of these 20 million tons still exist and either escaped to the atmosphere or eventually will. Once in the air, these substances mix and diffuse, finally reaching all parts of the atmosphere. Those CFC molecules that find themselves in the stratosphere are subjected to intense ultraviolet radiation from the Sun; they split apart into smaller fragments, releasing chlorine. The chlorine then starts a new career as a catalyst in the reactions that destroy ozone.

Ozone plays an important role in the high atmosphere in addition to screening out UV-B. By absorbing ultraviolet sunlight, ozone deposits the heat associated with this light into that level of the atmosphere, thus creating a layer much warmer than those immediately bellow. The stable region so created is the stratosphere. It is in this stable layer that disturbing changes are occurring. As scientists’ understanding of the chemical reactions that create and destroy ozone increased, it became clear that relatively small quantities of some substances could change these reactions and hence the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, provided those substances were placed in the high atmosphere. And chlorine, an effective chemical catalyst that can change ozone into normal oxygen, is appearing in rapidly increasing concentrations in the atmosphere.

If we wish, for some reason, for chlorine at the Earth’s surface to move into atmosphere, we would have arrange for the emission at the surface of the Earth of a chlorine-containing gas. We would, in addition, have to find a chlorine-containing gas that did not react readily with anything, one that was not soluble, and one that, upon reaching the stratosphere, could be broken down to release free chlorine only by the action of strong ultraviolet light. The properties I have just described would also make the gas extremely useful here at the surface of the Earth, and people have worked hard to create such a substance.

Литература
1 Ергожина Е. Е., Жумадилова Т. К., Жубанова Б. А. Словарь химических терминов. – Алматы, 2001. – 210 с.

2. Арыстангалиев С,. Абиев С. А., Шоканов Б.И. «Қазақ тілі терминдерінің салық ғылыми тусіндірме сөздіктері. Биология» . – Алматы, 2000. – 250 с.

3 Л.В. Кутепов. Английский язык для химиков. – М., 1999. – 280 с.

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