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- Literature
- A GLIMPSE OF BRITISH MUSIC
- AUSTRALIAN ARCHITECTURE: STEPS THOUGH THE HISTORY
ENGLISH-CANADIAN POETRYCanada is a multicultural country that located in North America. That is why this country have been described in many ways: for example, as a French or English colony, a "fifty-first state," a Pacific Rim country, an arctic giant, a friendly territory or an uninhabitable wilderness. Canadian literature has often had to deal with such differences in attitude, not just because many Canadian authors were born elsewhere and brought outsiders' expectations with them, but also because popular attitudes often perpetuated stereotypes of Canada [4]. Early Canadian literature produced excellent works both in French and English but they were heavily influenced by the traditions of the mother countries. However, in the early twentieth century’s writers began to discover their distinctly Canadian voices, though still speaking French and English. Later writers turned their attention towards issues such as the search of identity and the complexity of Canadian mosaic. Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by international immigration, particularly in recent decades. It reflects the country's ethnic and cultural diversity, with many of its most prominent writers focusing on ethnic life. Since World War II, multiculturalism has been an important theme. Satire and irony are also important elements of Canadian literature. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best [2]. It is convenient to divide pre-Confederation poetry, somewhat arbitrarily but justifiably, into two chronological categories: poetry written before 1825 and that written between 1825 and 1867. Before 1825 the verse written in what would become Canada (primarily in Lower Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) was largely dominated by neoclassical models. Among the major influences on the poetry of this period were the heroic couplets of English poets Alexander Pope and Oliver Goldsmith and the blank verse of James Thomson's The Seasons (1726-46), a poem with evident application to a land with Canada's seasonal variation. After 1825 the influence of romanticism came increasingly to be evident in Canadian poetry. The result was that from the 1820s writers turned to such poets as Byron, Wordsworth, Shelley and Thomas Moore for their models. Frequently employed forms now were ottavarima (for satire), the Spenserian stanza (for framing picturesque scenes and momentary insights) and the sonnet. Also in evidence after 1825 were the romantic narrative and the "dramatic poem" (Adam Kidd, "Preface," The Huron Chief and Other Poems, 1830). By 1864 there was enough Canadian verse in various forms to enable Edward Hartley Dewartto produce Selections from Canadian Poets (1864) - the first anthology of Canadian poetry in English and the only one before Confederation. The anthology's division into poems Sacred and Reflective, Descriptive and National and Miscellaneous indicates the emphasis and content of pre-Confederation poetry. Practically all the verse of this period was written by amateur poets who wrote to occupy "a few leisure hours". These amateurs usually produced only one poem of note that they published in a newspaper, as a pamphlet or in a slim volume with "Other Poems." That era produced a quantity of poetry which, though only sporadically distinguished by real talent and too frequently characterized by acquiescent imitativeness, cannot be dismissed as devoid of interest for later readers or of significance for Canadian culture [4]. The "Confederation Poets," so called because they were born within a decade of Confederation, were in no way a cohesive group. They did, however, lay firm foundations for a tradition of Canadian poetry - a tradition, moreover, that attracted attention beyond the boundaries of Canada. Their early work was naturally imitative (following British and, to a lesser extent, American models), but they gradually developed a modestly distinctive native style [4]. Choosing the world of nature as their inspiration, their work was drawn from their own experiences and, at its best, written in their own tones [1]. "Confederation Poets" included Charles G. D. Roberts, Archibald Lampman, Bliss Carman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell. The first rather tentative experiments in 20th-century poetic technique began in 1914. The earliest evidence of this activity came from the pen of poet and popular novelist Arthur Strinder, who that year presented his free-verse collection Open Water [4]. In 1915, John McCrae, serving as a surgeon in the Canadian Army, wrote the famous war poem In Flanders Fields (it is one of the most popular and most quoted poems from the war). After the war, in Newfoundland, E.J. Pratt described the struggle to make a living from the sea in poems about maritime life and the history of Canada; while in central Canada, poets were moving away from traditional verse forms. [1]. In the 1920 in Toronto the Canadian Forum, with a wider cultural focus, promoted debate on current art and the quality of Canadian criticism [4]. The early 1930s were not a good time for the new poetry. The Great Depression dampened creative activity in some poets and drove others into political action. The better-known, older and more conservative poets continued to publish, but the new movements, with the exception of Kennedy's The Shrouding (1933), were still not accepted. Nevertheless, during the 1920s and 1930s, the Montreal Group (a circle of young poets which included A.J.M. Smith, A.M. Klein, and F.R. Scott) helped inspire the development of modernist poetry in Montreal through the McGill Fortnightly Review and the anthology New Provinces (1936). The "new poetry" valued intellect over sentimentality, or as some have put it, logic over human emotions [1]. Also in 1936 the Canadian Authors Association (1921) established Canadian Poetry Magazine, which soon became identified with a more traditional poetic line. When WWII broke out, Canadian poetry appeared to be firmly set in 2 camps, the modern and the traditional, although the conservative group was much more successful in reaching its audience and in finding publishers for its work. Within a few months a newer generation of writers with a more realistic bent and a stronger political tone gave notice of itself in Montréal with a mimeographed little magazine called First Statement (1942-45) [4]. Also The Small Press movement in Canada was truly established, and now helped to focus attention on, and to pull together, the work of solitary spirits who had been writing modernist poetry. The years of WWII, when writers were traumatized by mass slaughter and the destruction of much that was prized by civilization, also witnessed an unusual burgeoning of Canadian poetry. In 1942 Ralph Gustafson scored an international coup with his Anthology of Canadian Poetry, which carried English Canadian poets to a large readership under the prestigious imprint of Penguin Books [4]. His selection included writing not only by poets who become familiar, but also by unknown Livesay, P.K. Page and Earle Birney. In 1943 A.J.M. Smith's milestone anthology The Book of Canadian Poetry was published. High critical standards segregated the Canadian modern poets into two groups -"The Native Tradition" and "The Cosmopolitan Tradition." Poetry by writers of the first group was showing a North American sensibility .The last one was influenced with British literature and traditions as the mother country. In 1949 The Red Heart, a collection of poems written by James Reaney marked the beginning of the "mythopoeic school" in Canadian poetry [4]. The late 1940s and early 1950s were grim years for Canadian poetry. The renewal began in 1952 with the appearance of a new mimeographed poetry magazine, Contact (1952-54) that was brainchild of Raymond Souster of Toronto. Fueled by fervent literary nationalism and anti-Americanism, by the expansion of new presses and literary magazines, and by the beckoning of avant-garde forms, poetry blossomed after 1960 [3]. Since the 1990s, several Governor General's Award-winning poets, in particular Jan Zwicky and Tim Lilburn, have been engaged in nonfiction writing that maps the relationships between poetry and philosophy. Zwicky's "Lyric Philosophy" and "Wisdom and Metaphor", as well as Lilburn's collection "Thinking and Singing", are representative works [1]. Modern Canadian poets explore ideas of local and global citizenship and community. Some of them also discuss the desire of women to express their distinctive voices. Inflected by anger and sorrow, Marie Annharte Baker, Marilyn Dumont protest stereotypes of First Nations and Métis. Dionne Brand’s No Language Is Neutral (1990) and Marlene Nourbese Philip’s She Tries Her Tongue, Her Silence Softly Breaks (1988) challenge the colonization, sexism, and racism of the English language [3]. Literature
УДК 781.703(410)(043)=111 Рибіна Анастасія Юріївна A GLIMPSE OF BRITISH MUSIC The relation of England to the higher art of music has been peculiar. In the sixteenth century and earlier it was one of the most musical countries in Europe. The music of the United Kingdom refers to all forms of music associated with the United Kingdom since its creation. Since its earliest days, English music has been particularly diverse and culturally relevant. It was made up of religious music, folk music, classical music and many other styles. There were styles designed for the wealthy and elite and others for the working class and the poor. English music was particularly influenced by European movements. However, there are also many trends and styles that originated from within the country itself. Notable examples are the Celtic chants and the medieval carols. The music in England has its historical framework. It divides into early music, baroque, classical, folk and modern music. I start with early British popular music. It can be seen to originate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the arrival of the broadside ballad as a result of the print revolution, which were sold cheaply and in great numbers until the nineteenth century. Further technological, economic and social changes led to new forms of music in the nineteenth century, including the brass band, which produced a popular and communal form of classical music. Similarly, the Music hall sprang up to cater for the entertainment of new urban societies, adapting existing forms of music to produce popular songs and acts. In the 1930s, the influence of American Jazz led to the creation of British dance bands, which provided a social and popular music that began to dominate social occasions and the radio airwaves [1]. Classical music. Musical composition, performance and training in the United Kingdom inherited the European classical traditions of the eighteenth century (above all, in Britain, from the example of Handel) and saw a great expansion during the nineteenth century. Romantic nationalism encouraged clear national identities and sensibilities within the countries of the United Kingdom towards the end of the nineteenth century, producing many composers and musicians of note and drawing on the folk tradition. These traditions, including the cultural strands drawn from the United Kingdom's constituent nations and provinces, have continued to evolve in distinctive ways through the work of such composers as Arthur Sullivan, Gustav Holst, Edward Elgar, Hubert Parry, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten. Folk music. Each of the four countries of the United Kingdom has its own diverse and distinctive folk music forms. The folk music was performed in the clubs and gatherings during the fifties, it was most often a revivalist interpretation of indigenous traditional English folk music that was still to be found surviving within the villages of rural England, as well as the industrial working class areas of the country, including fishing and mining communities. In addition, there are numerous distinct and semi-distinct folk traditions brought by immigrants from Jamaica, India, the Commonwealth and other parts of the world. Folk music flourished until the era of industrialization when it began to be replaced by new forms of popular music, including music hall and brass bands. Realization of this led to two folk revivals, one in the late-19th century and the other in the mid-20th century, which kept folk music as an important sub-culture within society. England has a long and diverse history of folk music dating back at least to the medieval period and including many forms of music, song and dance. Through two periods of revival from the late nineteenth century much of the tradition has been preserved and continues to be practiced. It led to the creation of a number of fusions with other forms of music that produced sub-genres such as electric folk, folk punk and folk metal and continues to thrive nationally and in regional scenes, particularly in areas such as North Umbria and Cornwall. Ireland, including Northern Ireland, has vibrant folk traditions. The popularity of traditional instruments such as fiddles has remained throughout the centuries even as analogues in Great Britain died out. Perhaps the most famous modern musician from Northern Ireland influenced by folk tradition is Van Morrison. Scottish folk music includes many kinds of songs, including ballads and laments, sung by a single singer with accompaniment by bagpipes, fiddles or harps. Traditional dances include waltzes, reels and jigs. Alongside the other areas of the United Kingdom, Scotland underwent a roots revival in the 1960s. Cathy-Ann McPhee and Jeannie Robertson were the heroes of this revival, which inspired some revolutions in band formats by groups like The Clutha, The Whistle binkies, The Boys of the Lough and the Incredible String Band. Welsh music also includes male voice choirs and songs accompanied by a harp. Having long been subordinate to English culture, Welsh musicians in the late 20th century had to reconstruct traditional music when a roots revival began. This revival began in the late 1970s and achieved some mainstream success in the UK in the 80s with performers like Robin Huw Bowen, Moniars and Gwerinos [2]. Throughout its history, the United Kingdom has been a major exporter and source of musical innovation in the modern and contemporary eras, drawing its cultural basis from the history of the United Kingdom, from church music, from Western culture and from the ancient and traditional folk music and instrumentation of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. In the 20th century, influences from the music of the United States became most dominant in popular music. This led to the explosion of the British Invasion, while subsequent notable movements in British music include the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Britpop. The United Kingdom has one of the world's largest music industries today, with many British musicians having had an impact on modern music. Forms of popular music, including folk music, jazz, rapping or hip hop, pop and rock music, have particularly flourished in Britain since the twentieth century. Britain has had an impact on popular music disproportionate to its size, due to its linguistic and cultural links with many countries, particularly the United States and many of its former colonies like Australia, South Africa, and Canada, and its capacity for invention, innovation and fusion, which has led to the development of, or participation in, many of the major trends in popular music. In the early-20th century, influences from the United States became most dominant in popular music, with young performers producing their own versions of American music, including rock n' roll from the late 1950s and developing a parallel music scene. This is particularly true since the early 1960s when the British Invasion, led by The Beatles, helped to secure British performers a major place in development of pop and rock music. Since then, rock music and popular music contributed to a British-American collaboration, with trans-Atlantic genres being exchanged and exported to one another, where they tended to be adapted and turned into new movements, only to be exported back again. Genres originating in or radically developed by British musicians include blues rock, heavy metal, progressive rock, hard rock, punk rock, electric folk, folk punk, acid jazz, trip hop, shoe gaze, drum and bass, grime, Britpop and dubstep [3]. England has produced some of the world’s best music throughout history. In fact, as a country, England has spearheaded some of the world’s most significant musical movements and trends [4].
1. W. Lovelock, A Concise History of Music (Frederick Ungar, 1953), p. 57. 2. P. Childs, M. Storry, Encyclopedia of contemporary British culture (London: Taylor & Francis, 1999), p. 412. 3. Liudmila Kovnatskaya. English music in the 20th century. Sources and periods of development. Moscow: Sovietsky Kompozitor, 1986. 216 pp. 4. T. Herbert, The British Brass Band: a Musical and Social History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 4-5.
In the period before European settlement of Australia in 1788, evidence of permanent structures built by Indigenous Australians in Australia was limited as the Indigenous population did not build establishments that were commonly recognised by the European Settlers. Tents and wattle and daub huts preceded more substantial structures. As a British colony, the first European buildings were derivative of the European fashions of the time. As most of the colonialists where from England the first buildings reflected English ideas [1]. Georgian architecture is seen in early government buildings and the homes of the wealthy. The architect Francis Greenway, who appears on the Australian ten-dollar note designed early buildings in the Georgian style. Examples include the Hyde Park Barracks, St James' Church and St Matthews Church at Windsor [1]. Another European style to gain favour in 19th century Australia, particularly in churches, was Gothic Revival architecture. Pointed arches, turrets, battlements and gothic ornaments could also be found on bank, insurance offices, university buildings and homes. One of the best examples of this style can be seen at the lower end of Collins Street in Melbourne. With the Australian gold rushes of the mid-19th-century major buildings, largely in Melbourne and Sydney and to a lesser extent in regional capitals such as Ballarat and Bendigo were built in the style of Victorian architecture. From about 1850 to 1893 Italianate architecture was also popular as it allowed greater displays of prosperity through rich and ornate decorate features such as cast iron lace work and slate roofs [2]. Towards the end of the century the style was pushed to an extreme by some architects. Buildings became over-burdened with excess columns, balustrades, exaggerated entrances and other lavish decorations. Medley Hall in Carlton is an example of this style which became known as the Boom Style from 1880 to 1893 [2]. One of the most significant architectural movements in Australian architecture was the Federation architecture style of the turn of the 20th century, where Australia began to play with the idea of a "style of our own", and the modern styles of the late 20th century which sought to reject historicism. Walter Burley Griffin was an American architect and landscape architect who played a key role in designing Canberra, Australia's capital city. A legacy of his unique building designs remains in a small number of Melbourne buildings and the Sydney suburb of Castlecrag. Castlecrag was planned by Griffin and also features a number of houses designed in the organic Modernist style he developed after the Prairie School architecture that marked his earlier career in the United States. The simple, flat-roofed cottages that Griffin built in Canberra used his innovative, patented techniques for concrete construction. One of the most important local introduction to Australian architecture was the verandah. As pastoralists took up land and built solid, single story dwellings the addition of verandahs proved popular as they provided shade and looked attractive. They were often integrated into the symmetry of Georgian style homes [3]. Like elsewhere in the world, socio-political factors have played their roles in shaping Australian architecture. During the early 20th century, cities across Australia had placed building height limits, typically 150 feet (45 m), thus hampering the development of American-style skyscrapers until the limits were lifted in the late 1950s. Likewise the popular notion of the "Australian Dream", in which families seek to own their free-standing houses with backyards, meant that high-density housings were rare in Australia until the end of the 20th century. The design of housing in Australia after World War II, which was mostly undertaken by builders, has been described as poor aesthetically and environmentally [3]. Significant concern was raised during the 1960s, with green bans and heritage concerns responding to the destruction of earlier buildings and the skyscraper boom, particularly in Sydney. Green bans helped to protect historic 18th-century buildings in The Rocks from being demolished to make way for office towers, and prevented the Royal Botanic Gardens from being turned into a carpark for the Sydney Opera House. In Melbourne a battle was fought to preserve historic Carlton, Victoria from slum reclamation for public housing, while gentrification played a big part in the suburb's salvation. In the 21st century, many Australian architects have taken a more Avant-garde approach to design, and many buildings have emerged that are truly unique and reflective of Australia's culture and values. As a result, many Australian practices are beginning to expand their influence overseas rather than the reverse which was often the case. Melbourne is seen as the city at the forefront of design ideas. Sydney is focusing on the humanist approach tending towards minimalism and architecture in Queensland is interested in outdoor rooms and the filtering of light [3].
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