Материалы к гэк functional Styles in Modern English

2. Part of Speech Theory

3. Noun and its Grammatical Categories

4.Role of English as a Global language. Basic Variants of English.

5.Grammatical Categories of the English Verb

6.Peculiarities of the Language of Media

7.Theory of Phoneme and Classification of Phonemes in the English Language

8.Peculiarities of English Intonation

9.Peculiarities of Colloquial Style in Modern English

10.Business Communication in Modern English

11.Periods in the History of the English Language

12.Free Word Combinations and Set Expressions. Their Classification and Stylistic Use

13. The Word as the Central Unit of the Language

14.Synonyms and Antonyms in the English Language

15.Types of Word-Formation in Modern English

16.The Word-Stock of the English Language

17.The Semantic Structure of the Word. Polysemy. Homonymy

18.The Official Style

19. The Belles-lettres Style.

20. The Scientific Style

21. The Theory of Simple Sentence

22. The Theory of Complex Sentence

23. Text Theory in Modern Linguistics

24. Universal Laws of Language Development

25. Speech Etiquette and Language Culture
1. Функциональные стили современного английского языка

2. Теория частей речи

3. Существительное и его грамматические категории

4. Роль английского языка как одного из мировых языков Основне варианты английского языка

5. Грамматические категории современного английского языка

6. Особенности языка средств массовой информации

7. Теория фонемы. Классификация фонем в современном английском языке

8. особенности английской интонации

9. Особенности разговорного стиля в современном английском языке

10. Деловое общение в современном английском языке

11. Периодизация истории английского языка

12. Свободные словосочетания и фразеологические единицы современного английского языка. Классификация и стилистическое использование фразеологизмов

13. Слово как центральная единица языка

14. Синонимия и антонимия в современном английском языке

15. Типы словообразования в современном английском языке

16. Словарный состав современного английского языка

17. Семантическая структура слова. Полисемия.Омонимия.

18. Стиль официальных документов

19. Художественный стиль.

20. Научный стиль

21. Теория простого предложения в современном английском языке

22. Теория сложного предложения в современном английском языке

23. Теория текста в современной лингвистике

24. Универсальные законы языкового развития.

Reasons for singling out the newspaper style in the system of functional styles \I.V.Arnold\. Newspaper style as a subsystem of publicist style \M.N.Kozhina\. Newspaper and publicist sub-styles of the so-called ”informational style” Functional style as a historical category. The style of poetry in the English language in the epoch of classicism (17^th -18^th centuries) with special norms of poetic language – the choice of vocabulary, morphological forms and syntactic construction. The priority of abstract, bookish, high-flown words ( ardours, glories abundance of stylistic devices, archaic grammatical forms (thee, thy, doth, etc.), perfect regularity of rhyming, rhythmic, metre, syntactic, compositional and other formal patterns dependence on the canon. Aesthetism, priority of exquisite taste, sensible and noble ideals – proclaimed in the poem “Poetic Art” by Niccolo Bualo. The spread of French classical traditions in Great Britain.

• 
  phonetic means - sound reiteration, onomatopoeia (sound imitation), alliteration, euphony, consonance, dissonance. Rhyme, rhythm and metre in poetry, the notion of rhythm in prose;
  
• 
  vocabulary – priority of concrete words as ‘artistic speech concretization ’, unlimited choice of vocabulary (including non-literary means, jargon and slang words), multi-stylistic character, wealth of synonyms and variety of vocabulary, developed polysemy, no limits in the use of words, which belong to different functional stylistic groups of vocabulary, stylistic resources of ‘combinatory semantics” of language units, normative and irregular combinatory patterns, decorative and other functions of phraseology, decomposition of phraseology, rich, genuine imagery, the use of figures of speech or lexical stylistic devices, as a unique textual system;
  
• 
  grammatical means of the language: in morphology a variety and wealth of stylistic effects of morphological forms and categories ‘ for expressing ‘artistic speech concretization ’ (deicsis, specific use of aspect and temporal meanings of the verb, ‘verbal speech and plot development’ ( increase in the role and currency of the verb, special use of morphological categories of number, case, degrees of comparison for emphatic and emotive purposes; in syntax a variety and wealth of syntactical constructions, colloquial speech stylization. Means of expressive syntax: inversion, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation, gradation, detachment, different models of author and character speech presentation, different models of homogeneous secondary parts of the sentence arrangement with the priority of double and triple patterns;
  
• 
  compositional textual devices ( three-part compositional canon – introduction, the main part and the ending with a more complex model of prologue and epilogue), deviations from the canon and their stylistic importance, the plot development the exposition, gradation, the climax and the outcome ( the denouement), compositional peculiarities of a poetic text - rigidly fixed dimensions of textual arrangement ( the fixed number of feet, lines, regular accentual models of the foot and line arrangement, the length and arrangement of a stanza, peculiar models of stanza and text arrangement, patterned rhyme, metre and syntax constructions), extensive use of foregrounding (coupling, antithesis, convergence, the effect of deceived expectancy),the effect of replenished expectancy, parallelism, irony, hyperbole as compositional devices;
  
• 
  the system of stylistic devices: systemic use of imagery - textual, developed and simple non-developed metaphors, metonymies, epithets, similes, hyperboles, litotes, puns, oxymorons, zeugmas, different in form contact and distant repetitions (ordinary, anaphora, epiphora, framing, anadiplosis, chain, refrain) Intensification of the total aesthetic impact of the language means of the text.
  

• 
  lexical means - highly specialized scientific terminology, terminological groups, revealing the conceptual systems of the scientific style, the peculiarities of the use of terms in scientific speech, the use of nouns and verbs in abstract meanings, special reference words, scientific phraseology - clichés, stereotyped and hackneyed word combinations and idioms, priority of neutral vocabulary, limitations in the use of emotional- evaluative and expressive vocabulary and phraseology, absence of non-literary vocabulary and phraseology ( slang words, vulgarisms, obscene words) , peculiarities in word- building (standard suffixes and prefixes, mainly of Greek and Latin origin – tele-, morpho, philo- -ism, etc.), peculiarities in the scarce use of imagery (usually trite and hackneyed, the priority of the functions of intensification and decoration, non-systematic, narrow contextual character, absence of rich associations, schematic and generalized character);
  
• 
  grammatical means: nominal character ( the predominance of nouns over verbs) in the use of parts of speech, the use of prepositional “of-phrases” to substitute the genitive case, transposition of the classes of nouns, wide use of the Passive Voice, Indefinite Tenses, specialization of pronouns in demonstrative and intensification functions, numerous conjunctions revealing the logical order of the text as well as double conjunctions ( not merely... but also, whether ... or both... and, as...as), adverbs of logical connectuin ;
  
• 
  syntactical means: priority of full, logically correct, regular syntactical models, the syntax of simple sentence in the scientific speech - extensive use of extended two-member sentence, priority in the use of compound sentences, extensive use of secondary predicative constructions ( Complex Object, Participial and Gerundial Constructions), wide use of conjunctions and denominative prepositions, concise expression of syntactical connection in word combinations, sentences, groups of sentences, absolute priority of declarative sentences in the use of communicative types of sentences;
  
• 
  composition of scientific text as an explication of the stages of cognition and productive thinking, the usual model is presented by the following scheme - a problem situation, idea, hypothesis, proof, conclusion, compositional speech forms of discussion, argumentation and description, conclusion, types of narration, wide-spread co-referential repetition as a specific method of text development.
  

Publicistic style and other functional styles. Publicist style as a sphere of intersection with the style of fiction / essay, sketch, lampoon, satirical article/ and scientific style /commentary, review/. Elements of conversational and official styles. Substyles and genres: publicist style proper /lampoons, articles, essays, sketches, travelogues, memoirs/, political propaganda /slogans, leaflets, proclamations/, journalese /, newspapers style - editorial (leader) article, brief news, or news columns, report, interview, reportage…/, oratory /speeches, parliamentary debates, TV discussions…/ TV and radio journalese, publicist cinematography (documentary, news-reel, etc.). New publicist genres: talk-show, reality-show, role-play show, game-show, debates, TV poll, TV commentary, new types of information programs. Inner differentiation of the publicist style and correlation of functional relevance of its different variations and genres.

• 
  vocabulary: priority of neutral and bookish vocabulary, wide use of language means to actualize chronotop (proper and geographical names, \abundance of statistics, toponymic and proper names, facts and data), means of evaluation, neologisms, social political terminology, a great number of loan-words and international words, use words and word-combinations of other styles ( especially, conversational), against the general background of the bookish style vocabulary, including terminology as well as means of imagery to increase expressiveness / trite metaphors, metonymies, personification, metaphorical paraphrases, metaphorical use of terminology/, newspaper terms: newspaper vocabulary and cliches (journalese and bookish), decomposition of phraseological units. Word-building: loan suffixes and prefixes as well as combination of words;
  
• 
  grammatical means: in morphology the use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. Average sentence length (9-11words) and average degree of complexity in the sentence structure. Wide use of declarative sentences. The use of questions, exclamatory sentences for the sake of expressiveness. Means of expressive syntax: inversions, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation, gradation, isolation, different types of the author's words presentation and conversational constructions, different patterns in the use of homogeneous parts of the sentence - double, three-element and multi-element;
  
• 
  compositional and textual means: canonized three-part structure of publicist texts, the principle of “pyramid” and its effects in the composition of modern newspaper text, the use of compositional ( foregrounding) devices.
  

Stylistic features: standard, imperative and prescriptive nature, ascertaining as leading method of presentation, precision which does not admit misinterpretation, non-personal character. Specific features of the official style characteristic of all its varieties and genres: templet ( pattern) text composition, speech standard and stereotyped ways of expression and arrangement of the language means (cliches, standard vocabulary). Use of the language means belonging to the style of official documents as negative development in speech culture, especially within the norms of publicist style.

• 
  graphic means: wide use of graphic means - change of the print, italics, the use of graphic delimitation means - various graphic symbols (asterisks, lines, patterns, etc.) which clearly demonstrate text limitation ( columns, division into parts, sections, elements, paragraphs), means of graphic design which reveal the representational form of the templet;
  
• 
  lexical means: bureaucratic cliches ( words or word-combinations), the use of special terminology to express precision, repetitions, the use of constructions with archaic elements, wide spread of vocabulary units, expressing obligation, absence of subjective emotional appraisal;
  
• 
  grammatical means: nominal character / predominance of nouns, a great number of nominal prepositions and conjunctions/, wide use of the genitive case, different forms of expressing imperative / verbs with the meaning of obligation, verbs of instruction, prescription, future tense forms, the imperative mood, infinitive and infinitive constructions/, absence of the first and second person presentation and correlated pronouns, the use of collective nouns for the expression of impersonality, different patterns of statement and ascertaining, specific use of aspect and tense forms ( future in conditional sentences, wide use of conditional sentences in connection with the necessity of detailed exposition and proviso, rare use of complex sentences, especially with subordinate sentences of cause because of the absence of the necessity to explicate logical operations of analysis and reasoning;
  
• 
  compositional devices: the patterned structure of texts of all the genres and substyles, declarative, ascertaining nature, neglect of narration and discussion.
  

Language means the colloquial style.

• 
  graphic means: graphic signs as the reflection of phonetic processes of sound modification in fluent speech, graphic signals of the change of communicative roles;
  
• 
  phonetic means: intensive modification of sounds in fluent speech, positional phonemic interchange(combinatorial - accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation and positional changes, connected with the position of a sound in a word - at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the word, stressed or unstressed position, etc.). Positional changes: reduction (weakening) of vowels in unstressed syllables) and partial devoicing of consonants at the end of the word before a pause. Complete reduction: apokopa (the drop of the final consonant or final part of the word), synkopa ( the drop of a vowel or several sounds in other positions). Partial reduction as a qualitative change of vowels. Partial and complete devoicing of consonants at the end of a word. Stylistic and communicative effects of modification. Wealth and variety of intonation patterns ( rhythm, tempo, timbre, melody peculiarities);
  
• 
  vocabulary: conversational (everyday life) vocabulary, priority of neutral widely-used words with concrete, denotative, referential meanings, wide use of non-literary vocabulary, expressive-emotional vocabulary, means of verbal imagery, well-developed synonymy and polysemy, the use of stylistic devices, including pun, decomposition of phraseological units; in word-formation: emotive suffixes and prefixes, wide use of word-formation, expressive tautology.;
  
• 
  grammatical means: in morphology - frequent use of pronouns and particles, specific deicsis ( wide use of pronouns in substitute and co-referential functions, wealth and variety of aspect and tense form of a verb (Present Continuos, Present Indefinite, Present Perfect), wide use of interjections, stop-, interruption-, break- and pause-word; in syntax: ellipsis, variety in the use of communicative types of the sentence, priority of short sentences, wide use of expressive constructions, exclamatory sentences, specific conversational constructions, distorted and “broken” syntax, predominance of co-ordination over subordination;
  

Literature:

1. Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка, М.: Просвещение, 1980

2. Кожина М.Н. Стилистика русского языка. М.,1993.

Parts of speech are generally described as grammatical classes of words. This is a traditional approach in normative grammar. The interpretation of parts of speech in modern linguistic theory is based on the assumption that parts of speech are semantic-grammatical classes of words which are differentiated on the basis of common syntactical, morphological and semantic properties. e.g. the noun has the common part of speech meaning of ‘a thing’, ‘substance’. It has the same for all the class grammatical forms of number and case, realizing the grammatical categories of the number and case, has common for all the class types of combinability (for e.g. left-hand combinability with the article, adjective and verb and right-hand combinability with the verb/ Besides, it has typical for all the class syntactical functions. It performs the functions of the subject, the object, the predicative of the sentence. The teacher entered the classroom ( the subject of the sentence). I saw the teacher yesterday.( the object). He is a teacher ( the predicative)

The development of the theory of parts of speech has witnessed great changes of paradigms. It is traced back to to the antique Greek logic philosophical tradition. The ten-part of speech system suggested by Aristoteltheory of parts of speech

Части речи как семантико-грамматические разряды слов, выделяемые на основе общности их синтаксических, морфологических и семантических свойств. Логико-философский анализ в античной теории частей речи. \Аристотель\. Формальная школа в анализе частей речи, учет различающихся окончаниями форм изменения \Ф.Ф. Фортунатов\. Форма и значение в их неразрывной связи как основание дифференциации частей речи \Л.В. Щерба\. Знаменательные части речи (глагол, существительное, прилагательное, наречие, числительное и местоимения) и служебные части речи (союз, предлог, артикль). Морфологические признаки (типы флексий, система грамматических категорий – акциденции части речи) как критерий выделения частей речи. Семантические критерии идентификации частей речи. Категориальное значение части речи (существительное – предметность, глагол – действие, прилагательное – признак). Синтаксическая функция (способность стоять в одной синтаксической позиции) как критерий выделения частей речи. Первичные и вторичные синтаксические функции. Имя существительное (общее категориальное значение предметности, категории рода, числа, падежа, определенности \ неопределенности, парадигма склонения синтаксические функции подлежащего, дополнения, именной части сказуемого). Глагол (общее категориальное значение действия, категории лица, числа, наклонения, времени, вида, залога, временной отнесенности и т. д., парадигма спряжения, синтаксическая функция сказуемого). Прилагательное (категориальное значение признака, категории рода, числа, падежа, степеней сравнения, парадигма склонения, синтаксическая функция определения).

Вербоиды (инфинитив, причастие, деепричастие, герундий). Наречие (категориальное значение – признак признака, категория степеней сравнения, синтаксическая функция обстоятельства). Числительное (категориальное значение количества, сочетаемость с существительным на основе формальной связи). Местоимения и местоименные наречия как указательно-заместительные слова, выполняющие указательную (дейктическую) и заместительную функции.
2.The development of the Part of Speech Theory reveals investigations of the criteria and the amount of the classes of words traditionally termed as parts of speech.

The Greek Philosopher Aristotel singled out 10 parts of speech on the basis of their generalized meaning.

The Classic conventional approach \ H.Sweet - “English Grammar” , O.Esperson - “The Philosophy of Grammar” \ suggested the devision of the words into declinables; noun-words \noun, noun-pronouns, noun-numerals, infinitives, gerunds\, adjective-words \ adjectives, adjective-pronouns, adjective-numerals, particles \, verbs \ finite verbs and verbals\ and indeclinables regarding the morphological form of the words.

The structural distributional approach worked out by Ch. Fries \ “The Structure of the Language”\ insisted on the division of words into class-words \1- 4 \ and function-words \ 15\ on the basis of their positions in the structure of the sentence or frame.

3. The Noun/ The Generally recognized category of the Noun is the category of number presented by the opposition of the singular form \weak, unmarked \ versus plural \ the strong marked member \ The Grammatical form of the plural number is manifested by the morpheme of the plural number realized in several allomorhpfs: -s,-es, -en, zero morpheme and sound alternation \. The Main problem of the theory of the Number is the fact that many nouns are not capable of forming this category. They make up large grops of nouns called Pluralia Tantum \ the names of games double part objects, sciences, collective notions… \ and Singularia Tantum \ abstract notions, nouns of material…\

The solution of the problem is suggested by the Russian linguist Isachenko who introduced the notion of discreteness to understand the complex relations of the semantics of the word and the grammatical category of number.

The category of gender in the English language is purely semantic as it is the intrinsic part of the lexical meaning of the word and is shown by different lexical means \ man, woman. A he-policeman, a she-policeman, a tiger – a tigress \

The Category of Case causes controversy as to the number of cases from 5 \ M Deutchbein, H. Sweet - Vocative, Accusative, Dative, Genetive, Common Case \ to the existence of the category in the English language, the latter being supported by the fact that ‘s can modify word-combinations and sentences and only the restricted number of words \ nouns denoting living beings, nouns denoting time and distance \ can enter the category

4. The verb is the most complex part of speech due to the role it performs in the expression of the predicative function of the sentence. The verb form identifies the type of connection between the situation named in the utterance and the reality. The complex character of the verb is in the intricate structure of the verb categories and its subclass subdivisions and its profoundly different sets of forms: finite and non-finite

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically i.e. developed in time. The main syntactical functions and combinability differ with the fininte and non- finite verbs due to the transitive character of the latter. Finite forms perform the function of the predicate, non-finite perform alongside this function can perform the function of the adverbial modifier, the object, the subject and even the attribute

The classification of verbs into: a\ semi-notional \modal, auxiliary, link, aspect verbs \ and functional; b\ actional and statal; c\terminative or “limitive”, non-terminative and double or mixed; c\ transitive or commplementive(monocomplementive, bicomplementive and adverbial complementive verbs) and intransitive or uncomplementive (personal and impersonal)

The non-finite forms of the verb (verbals or verbids) are specific hybrid forms, combining verbal characteristics with the characteristics of the other parts of speech verbal and nominal with the infinitive and gerund, verbal and adjectival for participles I and II. Hence the functions in the sentence and the main categorial differences. The infinitive and gerund retain aspect, voice and time correlation characteristics while their main syntactical functions are pronominal. The participles retain voice and time correlation characteristics while the main syntactical functions are attributive. The specific functions of the verbals are predicative consructions: Objective – infinitive, gerundial and particilial ( with participle I ) or Complex Object, Subjective coostructions- infinitive, and Absolute Participial Constructions with both the participles.

The Categories of number and person in reference to verbal forms are treated athe following way: traditionally they are recognisedas existing categoties though the mohologically they show only the the third person singular and its general couterpart. The newr and more consistant approach \ M. Y. Blokh\ treats these forms in unity with the personal-numeric forms of the subject, the main indicator of the numerric personal relations, being the sybject, while the grammatical rudimentary indficators pf number and person in the fininte form of the verb obviously perform a junctional function in the manifistation of predicative relations.

The Category of Tense and the corresponding system of tenses in the English language arouses great controversy as to the number of tenses and to the criteria of their classification/ The most common view recognizing three tenses : present, past and future represented by the triple oppositions of three grammatical forms

\ B.A.Ilyish The Structure of Modern English, A.I.Smirnitsky The Morphology of the English Language… \ reveals the psycological perception of objective time.

According to the second point view the category of tense or verbal time is subdivided into two temporal categories: the first, the category of primary time - presenting absolute time characteristics and correspondingly “primary” tenses - present and past; the second – presenting non-absolute relative time characteristics, the category of prospective time or the category of prospect represented by the opposition of future-non-future forms\ which makes an attempt at the explanation of the complex essense of the Future in the Past Tense \.

The adherents of the third pointy of view recognise only two tenses in English – present and past – reguarding the “shall \ will form” as modal \ L.S.Barchudarov Essays in Morphology of Modern English\/ The term ‘Coloured Future” wide-spread in English and American Grammar textbooks \Quirk R. Grammar of contemporary English \ reaveal a similar approach to the phenomenon/

The next aproach treats recognises more than three tenses including the category of tense into aspect and time correlation systems \ H.Sweet – complete and and incomplete tenses, continuous or point-tenses; O.Jesperson –expanded and non-expanded tenses, ante-ptreterite,present and future, preterite, present and future, post-preterite, present ad future. A similar approach is worked out by the Russian linguist I.P.Ivanova Вид и время в современном английском языке\ representing the tense-aspest system as a unity of grammatical forms manifesting aspect continuous and indefinite and tense distinctions in the form of a special blend of the two.

The Category of Aspect is traditionally treated as represented by the opposition of continuous \ durative, progressive\ aspect and non-continuous \indefinite, non-durative, recurrant \ aspect. Some linguists refer to the category of aspect the category of time correlation alongside the category of development \\ M. Y.Blohk \. O.Curme A Grammar of the English Language singles out 4 aspects: durative, poit-action, terminative and iterative aspects on the basis of the semantics of the verbs showing different modes of performing an action

The Category of Time Correlation or the Category of Order was singled out of the general tense system not log ago as the general controdiction of the tense and precedence or resultative meanings seemed to be quite obvious. Some linguists though still treat it inside the category of tense or the category of aspect \ M.A.Blokh - the category of retrospective coordination or the category of retrospect emphasizing its aspective function.

The Category of Mood is viewed through the broad conception of Modality which is defined as a manifistation of the relation of the situation presented by the utterance and the objective reality/ Modality is the core of the predicative structure of the sentence and in this aspect its is one of the most important verbal categories. It is represented by the opposition of the Indicative Mood and the group of Oblique Moods including Subjunctive I, II Suppositional and Conditional Mood . The Imperative Mood is recognized only by some linguists.

In the classification presented in the conception of M.Y. Blohk Subjunctive, opposed to the Indicative is the integral mood of unreality. It presents two sets of forms according to the structural division of verbal tenses into present and past. The functional subsystems of the subjunctive are: the spective – the mood of attitudes, and the conditional – the mood apprasing the cause-conditional relations. Each of them falls into two subsystems so there are : the pure spective, the modal spective, the stipulative conditional, the consective conditional.

The Category of Voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction. Thus the category is viewed as a morphosyntactical category. The morphological opposition is represented by the thepassive form, the strong marked member , and the active form, the week member which expresses “non-passivity”. Some linguists raise the problem of secondary or medial voices: the reflexive voice – “he shaved himself”; the reciprocal voice – “ they recognized each other; the middle voice – “the door opened” \B. A. Ilyish, M.Y. Blohk \ and consider them cases of neutralizing rduction of the voice opposition.

5. The categorial semantics of the adjective is the meaning of the property of a substance. Adjectives have a specific combinability with nouns in post and occasionally in postposition, with link-verbs in preposition, with modifying adverbs. Adjectives are divided into relative and qualitative, the latter traditionally described as the group forming degrees of comparison, though it seems that the rule has a lot of exceptions in English, so the new division into evaluative and specificative \ M.Y.Blokh\.

Statives or the words of the category of state are grouped into a separate part of speech as: a\ they denote state, not quality, b\ have the formal part-of-speech marker the prefix a-, c\ have no caregory of degrees of comparison, d\ have no right-hand combinability with the noun \ B.S.Khaimovich, B.I.Rogovskaya – A Course in English Grammar\. At the same time statives are very close to adjectives as: a\ their meaning may be classified as “stative propety”, b\ it shares the adjectival function of the predicative and c\ part of te combinability, d\ they are not altogethet outside the category of degrees of comparison e.g. more aware, e\statives are not so numerous as to form a separate part of speech – their total amount is a coulpe of dozen \ M.Y.Blohk \.

The Adverb is a word expressing propety of an action or property of another property or circumstances in which the action occurs. Adverbs are characterized by the combinability with the verbs, adjectives and words of the adjectival character, so their function is to express different adverbial modifiers. Adberbs can refer to the whole situation, in this case they are called “situation-determinants”. Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and cicumstantial.

The Pronoun is the part of speech having the categorial meaning of indication or deixis. It is the closed for membership class or the class presenting the narrow set of various status with the corresponding formal propeties of categorial changeability and wordbuilding. The pronouns have either sustantival or adjectival functions for different sets. The Pronouns are classified into: personal, possesive. demostrative, indefinite, relative, negative

The Numeral has the categorial meaning of number \ cardinal and ordinal\ / It presents the narrow set of simple numerals and the specific forms of composition for compound numerals and suffixal forms of derivation for ordinal numerals. It performs the functions of numeric attribute and numeric sustantive.

The Article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive function.\ M.Y. Blohl\. The Artcle is traditionally viewed as noun determinant expressing the meaning of definiteness- indefineteness and represented by the opposition of the definite article – the indefinite article – ‘zero” position or the meaningful absence of article. The Artcle p;ays an important part in the communicativesentence division or in the themo-rhematic structure of the sentence.

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  English as the world language ( English as the first language of 300 million people);
  
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  English as the national language of Great Britain, the USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand);
  
• 
  English as a language of international communication.
  

The development of the English language in the 20^th century: the spread of literary standard, semi-dialects (integration of the norms of the literary standard and dialects). Non-standard urban colloquial speech as a phenomenon, disappearing with the rise of pop culture. English pronunciation standard: RP (Received pronunciation, “received” as “accepted in the best society” ), a regionless accent in Britain. The role of mass media in the spread of national standard. English as a national language in the UK and British Commonwealth of Nations. English as a world language.

1.Мечковская М.Б. Общее языкознание: Структурная и социальная типология языков: Учебное пособие для студентов филологических и лингвистических специальностей. – М.: Флинта: Наука,, 2001. –312с

Mass media can be described as the extensive phrase describing television, radio, and film, newspapers and magazines, Internet, which has become a major communication resource.

For an advertisement to be effective its production and placement must be based on a knowledge of the public and a skilled use of the media. Advertising agencies serve to orchestrate complex campaigns whose strategies of media use are based on research into consumer behaviour and demographic analysis of the market area. A strategy will combine creativity in the production of the advertising messages with canny scheduling and placement, so that the messages are seen by, and will have an effect on, the people the advertiser most wants to address. Given a fixed budget, advertisers face a basic choice: they can have their message seen or heard by many people fewer times, or by fewer people many times. This and other strategic decisions are made in light of tests of the effectiveness of advertising campaigns.

Тексты сообщений в рамках компьютерного дискурса характеризуются структурно-семантическими и прагматическими признаками, свойственными текстам массовой коммуникации, публицистики, неформальных обсуждений проблем в рамках научных конференций и неформального межличностного общения. Специфика компьютерного дискурса состоит в избирательном комбинировании признаков, характерных для других видов и форм общения. Важными характеристиками дискурса являются связанность текста, обусловленность экстралингвистическими факторами, событийность, целенаправленность социального действия.

Компьютерное общение занимает промежуточное положение между научным стилем, основанным на принципе рациональности, и художественным, основанным на принципе эмоциональности. От первого компьютерное общение заимствует логическую последовательность в изложении фактов, развернутость высказывания, от второго - образность речи, эмоциональную окрашенность высказывания. Для компьютерного общения, характерна экспансия в сторону всех стилей, т.к. компьютерное общение имеет в себе черты бытового общения, официально-делового, научного стилей.

Русский компьютерный жаргон, являясь производным от компьютерных терминов и жаргонных слов английского языка, характеризуется большим разнообразием форм, развитыми синонимическими и словообразовательными рядами, несравненно более высокой эмоционально экспрессивной окрашенностью, чем английский. При этом основная масса слов содержит шутливо-ироническую, отрицательную оценку.

Неологизмы компьютерной коммуникации – одно из самых особых и динамично развивающихся явлений языка. Переводческая практика делает наибольший вклад в пополнение лексического состава языка перевода новыми словами, приходящими из других языков, а отсюда и словников двуязычных словарей. Что касается выбора того или иного способа передачи неологизмов, то он зависит от многих субъективных факторов, однако прежде всего необходимо стремиться к тому, чтобы эквивалент неологизму ИЯ в максимальной степени отвечал нормам и правилам ПЯ.

Совпадение объемов значений – относительно редкий случай. Гораздо чаще при подстановочном переводе происходит семантическая трансформация, т.е. слово ИЯ предается словом ПЯ, значение которого отличается своим объемом или содержанием.

полностью переведенный на цифровой код (об информации); полностью компьютеризированный

The Times, 11 Feb 1997

ANTI-SPAM, adj

фильтрующий электронную почту, не пропускающий ненужные материалы (об устройстве)

Newsweek, 6 Apr 1998

программа или электронное устройство, “фильтрующее” электронную почту, отсекающее ненужные материалы, особенно рекламного характера

Economist, 1 Nov 1997

компьютерная программа, уничтожающая “компьютерные вирусы” или предохраняющая от них (обычно состоит из двух частей – поисковой и удаляющей вирусы)

Guardian, 8 May 1997

Economist, 29 March 1997

получать доступ к информации, пользоваться информацией через Интернет

The Times 7 May 1997

компьютерная программа, дающая доступ к информации, особенно через Интернет

The Times, 7 May 1997