may employ organic (e.g. biotin) and inorganic (e.g. magnesium ion) cofactors to assist in
catalysis.
Enzymes act by converting starting molecules (substrates) into different molecules
(products). Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur
at rates sufficient for life. Since enzymes are selective for their substrates and speed up only a
few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines
which metabolic
pathways occur in that cell, tissue and organ. Organelles are also
differentially enriched in sets of enzymes to compartmentalize function within the cell.
Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation
energy (
E
a
). As a result, products are formed faster and reactions reach their equilibrium state
more rapidly. Most enzyme reaction rates are millions of
times faster than those of
comparable un-catalyzed reactions and some are so fast that they are diffusion limited. As
with all catalysts, enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyze, nor do they alter
the equilibrium of these reactions. However, enzymes do differ from most other catalysts in
that they are highly specific for their substrates. Enzymes are known to catalyze about 4,000
biochemical reactions. A few RNA molecules called ribozymes also catalyze reactions, with
an important example being some parts of the ribosome. Synthetic molecules called artificial
enzymes also display enzyme-like catalysis.
Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: decreased by inhibitors or
increased by activators. Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors.
Activity is also
affected by temperature, pressure, chemical environment (e.g., pH), and the concentration of
substrate. Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics.
In addition, some household products use enzymes to speed up biochemical reactions (e.g.,
enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein or fat stains on clothes; enzymes
in meat tenderizers break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to
chew). The study of enzymes is called
enzymology.
The term
enzyme comes from
zymosis, the Greek word for fermentation, a process
accomplished by yeast cells and long known to the brewing industry, which occupied the
attention of many 19th-century chemists.
Louis Pasteur recognized in 1860 that enzymes were essential to fermentation but
assumed that their catalytic action was inextricably linked with the structure and life of the
yeast cell. Not until 1897 was it shown by German chemist Edward Büchner that cell-free
extracts of yeast could ferment sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide; Büchner denoted his
preparation
zymase. This important achievement was the first indication that enzymes could
function independently of the cell.
The first enzyme molecule to be isolated in pure crystalline form was urease, prepared
from the jack bean in 1926 by American biochemist J. B. Sumner, who suggested, contrary to
prevailing opinion, that the molecule was a protein. In the period from 1930 to 1936, pepsin,
chymotrypsin, and trypsin were successfully crystallized; it was confirmed that the crystals
were protein, and the protein nature of enzymes was thereby firmly established.
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