certain
health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by
otherwise healthy people.
By convention, the term
vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as
dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in greater
amounts than vitamins) nor the great number of other nutrients that promote health, and are
required less often to maintain the health of the organism. Thirteen vitamins are universally
recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not
their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of
vitamer compounds that all show
the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped
under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes
the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids.
Vitamers by definition are
convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible
to one another, as well.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some,
such as vitamin D, have
hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue
growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants
(e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins, the B complex
vitamins, function as precursors for enzyme cofactors that help enzymes in their work as
catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of
prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids.
They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules
that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic
acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in
assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins'
best-known function,
the other vitamin
functions are equally important.
Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and
semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through
food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing
season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins
have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive
semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives,
since the middle of the 20th century.
Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13
vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C).
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the
body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because
they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Many types of water-
soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the
intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the
body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-
soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.
The term
vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a compound word coined in 1912 by
the Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive
Medicine. The name is from
vital and
amine, meaning amine of life, because it was suggested
in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other
similar dietary-deficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This was true of thiamine, but
after it was found that other such micronutrients were not amines the word was shortened to
vitamin in English.
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