Англо – русско – казахский терминологический словарь для Архитектурностроительных специальностей

Text 1 Neoclassicism

The classicism that flourished in the period of 1750-1830 is often known as Neoclassicism, in the order to distinguish it from the classical architecture of ancient Rome or of the Renaissance.

The search for the intellectual and architectural truth characterized the period. Stylistically this began with an onslaught on Baroque architecture, which­­ - with its emphasis on illusion and applied ornament - was felt to be manifestly untruthful.

Essentially representing a new taste for classical serenity and archaeologically corrrect forms, 18^th century classicism manifested itself in all the arts.

The discovery, exploration, and archaeological investigation of classical sites in Italy, Greece and Asia Minor were crucial to the emergence of Neoclassicism.

The centre if international Neoclassicism was Rome. The cradle of Italian antiquities, it provided the stage, but the leading actors in the Neoclassical drama were France, German, or English; very little was contributed by Italian to this new movement. The centre of activity was the French Academy. The winners of the Academy's Prix de Rome went to Italy to study the monuments firsthand. The projects produced by the French Prix de Rome winners are characterized by their grandeur of scale; strict geometric organization; simplicity of geometric forms; Greek or Roman detail; dramatic use of columns, particularly to articulate interior spaces and create urban landscapes; and a preference for blanc walls and contrast of formal volumes and textures. The same qualities describe Neoclassical architecture as it was to emerge throughout Europe and in America.

The Greeks invented the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The Romans added the Tuscan and the Composite.

The oldest order, the Doric, is subdivided into Greek Doric and Roman Doric. The first is the simplest and has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon. Roman Doric has a base and was less massive.

The parts of Greek Doric – the simple, baseless columns, the spreading capitals, and triglyph-metope ( alternating vertically ridged and plain blocks) frieze above the columns – constitute an aesthetic development in stone incorporating variants on themes used functionally in earlier wood and brick construction. Doric long remained the favourite order of the Greek mainland and western colonies, and it changed little throughout its history.

The Ionic order evolved later, in eastern Greece. About 600 BC, in Asia Minor, the intimation of the style appeared in stone columns with capitals elaborately carved in floral hoops – an Orientalizing pattern familiar mainly on smaller objects and furniture and enlarged for architecture.

It developed throughout so called­ Aeolic capital, the volutes of which spread horizontally from the centre and curl downward. The order was always fussier and more ornate, less stereotyped than Doric. The Ionic temples of the 6^th century exceed in size and decoration even the most ambitious of their Classical successors. Such were the temples of Artemis at Ephesus in Asia Minor and the successive temples of Hera on the island of Samos.

The Corinthian order originated in the 5^th century BC in Athens. It had Ionic capital elaborated with acanthus leaves. In its general proportions it is very like the Ionic. For the first time the Corinthian order was used for temple exteriors. Because of its advantage of facing equally in four directions it was more adaptable than Ionic for corners. There are not many Greek examples of the Corinthian order. The Romans widely used it for it showiness. The earliest known instance of the Corinthian order used on the exterior is the choragic monument of Lysicrates in Athens, 335/334 BC.

A simplified version of the Roman Doric is the Tuscan order. It has a less decorated frieze and no mutules in the cornice.

The Composite order is also a late Roman invention. It combines the elements from all the Greek orders.


Text 3 Arches
Throughout most of architectural history, the arch has been the chief means of overcoming the spanning limitations of single blocks of stone or lengths of timber.

There were three types of arches in ancient architecture. One, which survives today in Mycenean cyclopean construction, consisted of only three rough blocks of stone, the central one somewhat larger than the gap between them. A second, of which monumental examples survive in Egypt from the 3^rd millennium BC, consisted of only two long blocks inclined toward one another as an inverted V-shape

This form was probably constructed even earlier in timber. The third, of which

Surviving examples are very widespread, was what is commonly known as the false or corbelled arch.

None of these early forms was very efficient. Spans rarely exceeded 6 ft. 6 in. (2m). The spanning of substantially wider gaps called for true arches constructed

On centering from large number of bricks or stone voussoirs. Small true brick arches appeared first in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

From the first century AD the Romans began to use concrete in place of cut stone for all the longer spans.

Later brick and stone arches departed from Roman precedents mainly in adoption of other profiles. Of these, the most important were the pointed profiles of most Islamic and of Cothic arches. The Islamic form appeared first and was preceded by a Sassanian form of roughly parabolic profile. The chief merit of the pointed profile was probably the ease with which it could be used in ribbed vaults of any plan shape and, without aesthetic inconsistency, throughout structures that vaulted in this way.

Early cast-iron arches of the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries all closely resembled braced timber arches. Later steel and reinforced-concrete arches have usually been given the necessary stiffness simply by the adoption of an I-shaped, boxlike, or tubular cross section.

Text 4 Domes and related elements
The dome may be regarded as the three-dimensional counterpart of the arch. In its true circular form, a vertical arch is rotated around a vertical axis and sweeps out, at every level, a continuous circular horizontal ring. Loads can be transmitted both along the meridian lines of the vertical arches and around the horizontal rings.

The simple dome form, set directly on the ground, was the first completely manmade spatial enclosure. Simple domed huts, constructed from a wide variety of materials, can still be found throughout the world

The dome, constructed with horizontally bedded rings and sharply pointed profile, had already achieved monumental proportions by about the 14^th century BC in the great tombs at Mycenae. But these tombs were not completely freestanding. They depended partly for their stability on the each piled against them outside.

The full development of the potential of the truly freestanding dome owed much to Roman concrete. Roman builders constructed over the Pantheon in the early 2^nd century a dome that has twice since been equaled but never really surpassed.

The later Western development was initiated by an achievement that, in the circumstances of the time, probably exceeded that of Hadrian’s architect of the Pantheon dome. This was Brunelleschi’s construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral in the early 15^th century. A major difficulty here was the octagonal plan form which Bruneleschi was constrained to follow throughout the height of the dome itself. His central idea was to construct it, nevertheless, as if it were a circular dome of the same internal diameter as the diagonals of the octagon – a diameter that slightly exceeded that of the Pantheon dome. In this way, and by means of numerous related devices, he succeeded in completing it without any centering, as the first Renaissance double dome.

Text 5 Egyptian architecture
During the Old Kingdom, the period when Egypt was ruled by the Kings of the 3rd to 6th Dynasties, artists and craftsmen were drawn to the court to work under the patronage of the king and his great nobles. Techniques of working in stone, wood, and metal made tremendous progress, demonstrat­ed by surviving large scale monuments, such as the pyramids of the 4th Dynasty and the sun temples built by the 5lh-Dynasty kings. The pyramids of the 4lh Dynasty are the most spectacular of all funerary works and the only remained wonder of the world. These monuments celebrated the di­vinity of the kings of Egypt, linking the people with the great gods of earth and sky.

This was a time when trade and the economy nourished. Craftsmen worked in the finest materials which were often brought great distances, and were able to experiment with recalcitrant stones as well as new tech­niques of metalworking. This enabled them by the 6'h Dynasty to produce large metal figures. The earliest that survive are the copper statues of Pepi I and his son, found at Hierakonpolis. Made c. 2330 SCthey are badly cor­roded but still impressive in their stiffly formal poses. The eyes are inlaid, and the crown and the kilt of the king, now missing, were probably origi­nally made of gilded plaster.

During the prosperous period known as the Middle Kingdom fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders, and new areas of land were brought under cultivation. Craftsmen achieved new levels of ex­cellence. Very little architecture remains — many royal monuments were robbed for their stone in later periods — but what has survived shows great simplicity and refinement. The example is the pyramid of Sesostris I at Lisht.

The establishment of the 18ih Dynasty marked the beginning of the New Kingdom and a new blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt. Craftsmen benefited from wider contact with other civilizations, such as those of Crete and Mesopotamia, and were also able to work with import­ed raw materials.

The kings gave encouragement to artists and craftsmen by ordering great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt. The temple walls were covered with reliefs celebrating the achievements of the kings and the pow­ers of the gods. The courtyards and inner sanctuaries were enriched with statuary. The most notable monuments are the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput at Deir-el-Bahari (c. 1480 BC), which had a series of pillared colonnades on three sides of three superimposed terraces linked by gigan­tic ramps and magnificent Great Temple at Karnak to Amon as the uni­versal god of Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian architecture was revived under the Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander the Great, who built numerous temples of tradi­tional style of which the finest examples that survive are the Temple of Horus at Etfu and the temples on the islands of Philae (c. 323—30 BC).

Text 6 The art of architecture

Architecture is the art and the technique of building, employed to fulfill the practical and expressive requirements of civilized people. Almost every settled society that possesses the techniques for building produces archi­tecture. It is necessary in all but the simplest cultures; without it, man is confined to a primitive struggle with the elements; with it, he has not only a defence against the natural environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civi­lized institutions.

The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man-made structures are (1) the suitability of the work to use by human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular human activities;(2) the stability and permanence of the work's construction; and (3) the communication of experience and ideas through its form.

All these conditions must be met in architecture. The second is a con­stant, while the first and the third vary in relative importance according to the social function of buildings. If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a factory, communication is of less importance. If the function is chiefly ex­pressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minor concern. In some buildings such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.

Next 7 The Athenian Acropolis

As one of the world's oldest cities Athens boasts a wealth of splendid relics of Hellenic art, some of which are more than 3,000 years old. The Acropolis, the Greek for upper town, the gem of world architecture, stands on a low rocky hill and contains the ruins of several ancient Greek archi­tectural monuments.

The Parthenon, a stately building with an eight-column facade, was built by Ictinus and Callicrates in 447—38 BC. The temple was designed to serve as an exquisite, imposing architectural frame for a stupendous gold and ivo­ry statue of Athena, the goddess in the Greek pantheon watching over the city. This no longer extant statue, which stood in the anterior of the shrine, was held in deep reverence.

Next to the Parthenon is another shrine, an Ionic temple of Athena, the Erechtheum, built by an anonymous architect in 421—06 BC. Its refined loveliness and proportions are a very bit as enchanting as the monumental grandeur of the Parthenon. It has the unparalleled portrayal of a contem­porary event on the frieze of the building: the procession of citizens in the yearly festival in honour of Athena built on an awkward site, it also had to serve different cults, which meant that its architect had to design a build­ing with three porches and three different floor levels. Its Caryatid porch, with figures of women for columns, makes use of an old Oriental motif that had appeared earlier, in Archaic treasuries at Delphi. The monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea was designed by Mnesicles, who had to adapt the rigid conventions of colonnade construction to a steeply rising site. In the precision and finish of their execution, which comple­ments the brilliant innovation of their design, these three buildings had no rival in the Greek world.

Text 8 Great Sphinx
From the 15^th century AD European travelers carried home tales of the mysterious and amazing remains of the civilization of Egypt. One its most remarkable monuments, which still evokes this sense of awe and might, is the Great Sphinx of Gizeh, the oldest surviving sphinx, dating from c2550 BC, carved from a rock with the crouching body of a lion and a human face (74,4m. long, 20,1m. high, and 4,2m. broad, at its widest point; the head is 8,7m. high from chin to crown).

The human head was the means of individualization the sculpture, so that the Great Sphinx probably bears the idealized features of Khephren whose pyramid is nearby.

The concept of the king as a powerful lion goes back into prehistoric times, and several ceremonial objects have survived which depict him in this guise, overthrowing his enemies. The sphinx was, therefore, a natural development, personifying the divine power of the king as a force protecting his land and repelling the power of evil.

The Great Sphinx is one of the most distinctive and dominant of all the images of ancient Egypt, which is perhaps the source of the misconception that sphinxes are of central importance in Egyptian culture. However, those that have survived are among the most impressive as well as intriguing examples of Egyptian sculpture.

Text 9 Baroque
Baroque and the late Baroque, or Rococo, are terms applied to European art of the period from the early 17^th century to the mid-18^th century.

“Baroque” was probably derived from the Italian word ”barocco”. This term was used by philosophers during the Middle Ages to describe an obstacle in schematic logic. This word also described an irregular or imperfectly shaped pearl.

During the Baroque period (c. 1600-1750), architecture, painting, and sculpture were integrated into decorative ensembles. Architecture and sculpture became pictorial, and painting became illusionistic. Baroque art was essentially concerned with vivid colours, hidden light sources, luxurious materials, and elaborate, contrasting surface textures.

Baroque architects made architecture a means of propagating faith in the church and in the state. Baroque space, with directionality , movement, and positive molding, contrasted markedly with the static, stable, and defined space of the High Renaissance and with the frustrating conflict of unbalanced spaces of the preceding Mannerist period. Mannerism is the term applied to certain aspects of artistic style, mainly Italian, in the period between the High Renaissance of the early 16^th century and the beginning of Baroque art in the early 17^th.

The Baroque rapidly developed into two separate forms: the strongly Roman Catholic countries (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Flanders, Bohemia, Southern Germany, Austria, and Poland) tended toward freer and more active architectural forms and surfaces; in Protestant regions (England, the Netherlands, and the remainder of the northern Europe.) architecture was more restrained and developed a sober quit monumentality impressive in its refinement. In the Protestant countries and France, which sought the spirit through the mind, architecture was more geometric, formal, and precise – an appeal to the intellect.

Hardouin-Mansart’s Dome des Invalides, Paris (c.1675), is generally agreed to be the finest church of the last half of the 17^th century in France.

The correctness and precision of its form, the harmony and balance of its spaces, and the soaring vigour of its dome make it a landmark not only of the Paris skyline but also of European Baroque architecture.

Other greatest works of this style are the church of Santa Susanna (Maderno, c.1597) Versailess (Le Vau), National Palace in Madrid (Sacchelti, 1736), Royal Palace at Caserta (Vanvitelli, 1752).

Text 10 Town Planning

That cities should have a plan is now admitted in our time of large-scale construction and planmaking has be­come an everyday activity. The purpose of a town plan is to give the greatest possible freedom to the individual. It does this by controlling development in such a way that it will take place in the interests of the whole population.

The new development absorbs or modifies an existing environment, and so before it can be designed it is necessary to find out about that environment. It is also necessary to do research of the trends of population growth, the distance from work to home, the preferences for different types of dwelling, the amount of sunshine in rooms, the degree of atmospheric pollution and so on. After the survey is complete a forecast of future development is made in the form of a map, or series of maps: the master plan or development plan. As no one can be certain when the development is to take place and since a society is an organic thing, with life and movement, the plan of a city must be flexible so that it may extend and renew its dwellings, reconstruct its working places, complete its commu­nications and avoid congestion in every part.

The plan is never a complete and fixed thing, but rather one that is continually being adapted to the changing needs of the community for whom it is designed. Until quite recent years town plans were always made as inflexible patterns, but history has shown that a plan of this description inevitably breaks down in time.

The flexible plan, preceded by a survey, is one of the most revolutionary ideas that man has ever had about the control of his environment.

Most towns today have a characteristic functional pattern as follows: a central core containing the principal shopping centre, business zones, surrounded by suburbs of houses. Most town planners accept the traditional town pattern. In the preparation of a master plan they are preoccupied with the definition of the town centre, industrial areas, and the areas of housing; the creation of open space for recreation, the laying down of a pattern of main roads which run between the built-up areas (thus leaving them free of through traffic) and connect them to each other.

The master plan thus has to define the ultimate growth of the town, but though the master plan is a diagram, and even a flexible one, it is the structure upon which all future development is to take place.

Литература
1 Амбург П.Г. Англо-Русский строительный словарь. – М. : Физматгиза 1961. – 599 с.

2 Бурлак Д.Г., Бурлак А.И Пособие по английскому языку для инженерно-строительных специальностей и архитектурных вузов. – М. : Высш.шк., 1998. – 150 с.

3 Безручко Е.Н. Английский для архитекторов : пособие по английскому языку для студентов архитектурных специальностей вузов. – Ростов н/Д. : Издательский центр МарТ», 2002. – 160 с.

4 Ельмуратов С.К., Ельмуратова А.Ф., Жакаева К.К. Русско-Казахский толковый словарь. – Павлодар : Павлодарский государственный университет им. С. Торайгырова, 2002. – 49 с.

5 Кусаинов А.К. Казахско-Русский и Русско-Казахский терминологический словарь. – Алматы : Республиканское государственное издательство Рауан, 2000. – 366 с.

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