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other. In most cases, some use of the LI in pair or group work might be tolerated as long as the students are on task and must talk
about and produce something in English at the end of the activity. Teach students rules for polite communication
and make it clear
that this is what is expected when students are working together in groups. One member of the group can be put in charge of
monitoring correct forms of address, turn-taking, and so on. Students who do not follow the rules can be expelled from the group
and made to stand at the back of the room.
Give instructions clearly and carefully, and check comprehension before the pair or group work begins. Write instructions
on the board so groups can refer to them as they progress. Model the activity with a student.
Teaching with limited resources. M
аny students in developing countries do not have textbooks. The only materials they bring
to class are a notebook and, sometimes, a pen or pencil. The teacher usually has a blackboard and chalk supplied by the school, but no
access to photocopies, no electricity, and often little access to books. Many teachers do not even have an
English dictionary or an
English grammar book available. The suggestions that follow can help overcome the scarcity of resources. Rather than always writing
notes on the board for students to copy, try some more interesting ways of getting the necessary information into their
notebooks. For example, dictate the information using a dictogloss, which is a method where the students listen twice to a passage
read at normal speed, taking notes during the second reading. They then work with a partner to try to reconstruct the text. When a
pair thinks they have it, they write the pas sage on the board and the class works together to make it as close to the original as possible.
The teacher makes final corrections, and the students correct their work.
Ask students to bring an item from home to use as a talking or writing point for the class. This can
help build
community in the classroom and encourage student responsibility and participation in the activity. To save time during class, write
texts or questions on large sheets of newsprint or brown paper before class rather than writing on the board. In a very large
classroom, make two or three copies that can be posted on the side or back wall so everyone can see.
Use pictures from magazines, or learn to draw simple pictures to illustrate vocabulary or to generate interest in reading,
speaking, or writing activities, or as a basis for discussion. Bring regalia-actual objects that language learners can see, hear, and
touch-into the classroom. A teacher can generate a great deal of interest when he or she pulls surprising things out of a bag! Use
what the students themselves say as input. For example, to practice changing direct to
indirect speech, a student can be asked a
question, and another student asked to report what was said either orally or in writing. This can be done in groups after a few
examples have been given to the whole class. Or a topic can be given (for example, "Food") and the teacher can ask a few students
to- make a statement about it. The rest of the class then writes down the sentences in a student-generated dictation. 4. Motivating
students in heterogeneous classes. In a large class, it is easy for students to feel alienated. If they feel that the
teacher does not know
them or care whether or not they learn, they will usually put very little effort into participating actively in the learning process. Some
ways to motivate students of different language levels and ages in a large class are described below. At the beginning of the year,
include some information about the importance of English as a world language, either as a listening or a reading activity.
Encourage students to brainstorm reasons for learning English and the advantages of being able to speak another language. To
keep more advanced students challenged, prepare an activity resource notebook to keep in the classroom.
Students who finish
activities quickly can work on the supplementary activities while waiting for the rest of the class to finish. To ensure that students
speak up loudly in class when answering questions or making comments, the teacher should move away from the student who is
speaking, rather than coming closer to hear him or her better. In this way, everyone should be able to hear and remain involved.
Adapt the material according to the language level, age, and needs of students. In multi-age, multi-level classes, plan a variety of
activities to appeal to as many students as possible. Develop sequential activities with several steps so
that higher level students
complete more while lower level students work at their own pace. When preparing worksheets, add some option al sections for more
advanced students. Use higher level students as assistant teachers or monitors who can help and support the lower level students.
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