Line and staff positions (линейньіе и управленческие должности)

The 24 water companies across England and Wales have statutory responsibilities for public water supply, including quality and suffi­ciency. Ten of these companies are also responsible for public sewer­age and sewage treatment.

The Water Industry Act 1999 prohibits water companies from dis­connecting households, as well as other premises vital to the commu­nity. It also protects water customers, such as low-income families, the elderly and the disabled, who are vulnerable to hardship because of high bills for metered water. Since 1989 water bills have risen by more than a third in real terms. The Government's draft Water Bill, published in November 2000, comprises clauses to encourage the effi­cient use of water, including changes to the licensing system for water abstraction (with increased penalties for abstraction and impounding offences), and provisions to improve the regulation of the water in­dustry and promote the interests of consumers.

Watermark, a government-backed initiative, aims to develop a da­tabase that will give the public sector, which has a water bill of £600 million a year, reliable benchmarks against which to measure its con­sumption. Such data, it is estimated, could save £60 million of this amount.

During 2000-05 the Government requires the water companies to pay for a capital investment programme costing an estimated £15.6 billion, including £7.4 billion on improving water quality and on meeting new UK and EU environmental standards. It also wants to ensure that customers do not have to face unreasonably high bills.

Of some 2.8 million tests on drinking water in England and Wales in 1999, 99.82% met standards that are in some cases stricter than those in the 1980 EC Drinking Water Directive. A new EC Directive, adopted in 1998, requires Member States to meet a number of even more stringent standards, for example an obligation to ensure maxi­mum concentrations of lead in water of 25 microgrammes per litre within five years and 10 ug/1 within 15 years.

The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) checks that water compa­nies meet the drinking water quality regulations. Enforcement action is taken when there are infringements of standards. The DWI also investi­gates incidents and consumer complaints about quality, and initiates prosecution if water unfit for human consumption has been supplied.

The Government has proposed to extend the opportunities for competition in the water industry in England and Wales, but will take steps to safeguard water quality, public health and wider social poli­cies. These proposals will license new entrants in the market for pro­duction and retail activities, while the incumbent water companies will remain vertically integrated statutory undertakers. A consultation paper setting out the regulatory and legislative framework will be published in autumn 2001. By September 2000 eight 'inset appoint­ments' had been made, under which a water company can seek to be appointed to supply customers in the area of another appointed water company. Five of these appointments involve Anglian Water, and one a new entrant. Since April 2000 every water company has been sub­ject to the Competition Act 1998, which could result in others using its pipe network to supply customers. In August 2000 the Government lowered the 'inset' threshold, allowing customers who use between 100 million and 250 million litres a year-such as hospitals and univer-sities-to seek alternative suppliers.

Before the Second World War Britain produced one-third of its total food requirements. In the 1980s home production of the principal foods amounted to two-thirds. Britain today is self-sufficient in milk, eggs, potatoes, barley and oats. Also a large proportion of meat and vegetables is home-produced. Home-produced flour, cheese, bacon and ham meet half of the country's needs.

Farming depends on many physical factors, such as relief, climate and soil. Britain can be divided into «highland» and «lowland» by an irregular line running across the country from Newcastle to Sheffield and Bristol. To the west and north of this line lie most of the moun­tains and hills. To the east and south lies lowland Britain. As the pre­vailing rain-bearing winds hit Britain from the west, it is easy to un­derstand that highland Britain experiences a much higher rainfall than the rest and thus can be used for hill-farming (north Wales and west Scotland). Areas with much less rainfall and altitude are suitable for arable farming and intensive livestock farming.

The increasing use of intensive methods of production in agricul­ture has led to greater specialization. Three-fifths of the farms in Brit­ain are devoted mainly to dairying or beef cattle and sheep; one in six

is a cropping farm and the remainder specialize in pigs, poultry or horticulture, or are mixed farms. It follows then that Britain's farming is predominantly based on livestock production.

Cattle Farming. Dairying occurs widely, but there are concentra­tions in the western parts of the country, where the wetter climate en­courages the growth of good grass (the western parts of England, South-west Scotland, South-west Wales and Northern Ireland). About 80 % of home-produced milk and 65 % of beef production derive from the national dairy herd, in which the Frisian breed is predomi­nant. Sheep farming is concentrated in the hill and moorland areas of highland Britain. The country has a long tradition of sheep production, with more than 40 breeds (e.g. the famous Leicestershire breed). Pig breeding is carried on in most parts of England (especially in the northern, eastern and south-eastern countries) and in Northern Ireland. Pig meat is mainly used for bacon.

Arable Farming. Arable crops grown in Britain include cereals (wheat, barley, oats), potatoes, sugar beet and fodder crops (turnip, swede, kale). There are 12 million hectares of cultivated land under crops and grass. Since the 1960s the area under barely has increased by 75 % (in recent years the crops have been used for malting). The total area of fodder crops has fallen because farmers can provide winter feed by increased grass production. Arable crops are generally grown in the eastern part of the country, which is drier and has more sunshine (eastern and south-eastern countries of England and the lowlands on the east coast of Scotland). Wheat and barely are the main cereals grown in this area. Though potatoes are grown in most parts of Britain, potato growing on a large scale mark the farming of the Fens and the Thames and Humber valleys.

Horticulture. Horticultural crops (fruit, vegetables and flowers) are largely grown on specialized holdings, but some are produced on arable farms.

Field vegetables are the most important horticultural sector and are widely spread over the country, with the most intensive concentrations in the Thames Valley. Dessert apples are the most important fruit crop. Britain is one of the few countries which grow varieties of apples espe­cially suitable for cooking; these are produced in England and Northern Ireland. Some high quality pears are produced in the east and south-east of England. Cherries and plums are grown in Kent. Around the city of Perth is the largest concentration of raspberry plantations in the world. Strawberries are the most widely grown soft fruit.

Early in the 20^th century Dutch growers introduced tulips into Brit­ain. Today flowers and bulbs occupy some 5,000 hectares of land.

There are several tulip-growing regions in England. On the Isles of Scilly the raising of flowers is the main industry, they are grown in the open even in winter. In Lancashire the yellow, red, pink, purple and orange fields of flowering tulips stretch for miles.

The UK's Government launched a long-term strategy for the agri­culture industry — A New Direction — In December 1999. It is de­signed to help the farming industry become more competitive, di­verse, flexible, responsive to consumer wishes and environmentally responsible. The strategy aims to deliver short-term support to those sectors hit hardest by the farming crisis and longer-term action to en­courage industry restructuring and adaptation.

New Rural Development Programmes, implementing the EU Rural Development Regulation, will help implement the strategy.

Vocabulary notes.

arable farming хліборобство; землеробство

barely ячмінь

beef cattle м 'ясна худоба

breed порода (худоби)

cattle farming розведення рогатої худоби, а також коней,
свиней, тваринництво

cropping farm рослинницька ферма

dairy farming розведення молочної худоби

fodder crops фуражні (кормові) культури

glasshouse crops тепличні культури

hill-farming землеробство на схилах

horticulture садівництво

kale капуста кормова

livestock farming розведення домашньої худоби; племінне тва­
ринництво

malting пивоваріння

pedigree племінне стадо

pig breeding свинарство

poultry breeding птаховодство

soft fruit ягода
II. Read the text given below and find the equivalents of the Ukrainian words and expressions in the box:

ділянка землі; пасовище; обгороджування; відокремлення землі; жива огорожа; зникнення селянства; імпортувати де­шевші продовольчі товари; землевласники; загальний сіль­ськогосподарський випуск продукції; сільське населення; добувати прибуток; фермер-орендар; чорнороб; великий ма­єток (помістя); сільськогосподарський робітник, зайнятий неповний робочий день; фермери-власники; привласнення землі.

The existing social structure of agriculture in Britain has been shaped by its historical development. By the end of the 15^th century serfdom in England had practically ceased to exist. As a result there emerged a peasantry paying rent to their landlords. But many lords and landowners were dissatisfied with the rents, and they tried to get rid of tenants who could not pay more. It led to enclosures — the seperation of land from common ground by putting walls or fences or hedges round it, shutting it in on all sides, and hence its appropriation. Arable land was turned into pastures for sheep, as wool produced high profits. Wool became Britan's most important export for several centuries after this. The direct result of the enclosure movement was the loss of land and jobs for many thousands of peasants that eventually led to the dis­appearance of peasantry in Britain in the late 18^th century.

During the Industrial Revolution Britain became dependent for its food supply on imported agricultural produce. It became more profit­able to import cheaper foodstuffs from overseas, mainly from Austra­lia, New Zealand and Canada.

Nowadays the larger part of the land belongs to big landowners: 70 % of all land is in the hands of only 1 % of the population. Among the largest landowners in the country are the Crown and the Church of England.

The main productive forces in Britain's agriculture are full- or part-time agricultural labourers. Large farms produce about half of the total agricultural output.

The rural population of Britain can be divided into four groups: 1) landlords (landed aristocracy), owning large estates and deriving

from rents; 2) owner-farmers, owning farms and land, making their living by the sale of agricultural produce; 3) tenant-farmers, renting farms from landlords and making their living in the same way as the owner-farmers; 4) labourers, neither owning nor renting any land, but working for wages for the fanner.

III. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right Memorize the definitions. Use the words in the sentences or situations of your own.

1. 
   crop
   
2. 
   real estate = real property
   
3. 
   self-sufficiency
   

1. 
   an unskilled worker doing a job that requires little training
   
2. 
   a measure of an individual's or a family's quality of life
   

3. 
   a period during which economic activity (spending, production, investment) falls and un­employment rises
   
4. 
   land, including all the natural resources and permanent buildings on it
   
5. 
   a situation where the quantity supplied is greater than the quantity demanded
   

g) situation where an individual or group does

h) the practice of farming, including the culti­vation of the soil (for raising crops) and the raising of domesticated animals i) income derived from human labour j) natural resources or gifts of nature that are used to produce goods or services

Q.

A. The major issue facing the farming community in the UK in 2001

BSE epidemic (bovine spongiform encephalopathy) and then the

severe flooding, which affected many parts of the UK, especially

parts of south-east England, and areas close to the River Severn

and the Yorkshire Ouse, during autumn 2000. Q. A. Farm incomes remained low in 2000, another key factor being the

further decline in the value of the euro against sterling during the year. Q. A. A new Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

(DEFRA) was created after 2001 General Election. Q. A. It has a crucial role in promoting sustainable and competitive

food chains, both in the UK and internationally. Q. A. DEFRA administers support policies agreed in Brussels which

provide around £ 3 billion a year to UK agriculture from the

European Union budget.

1. 
   About two-thirds of all agricultural land in Great Britain is owner-occupied; the rest is tenanted or rented.
   
2. 
   In England and Wales county councils let smallholdings to ex­perienced people who want to farm on their own account.
   
3. 
   Dairy production is the smallest part of the sector, followed by cattle and calves, and then sheep and lambs.
   
4. 
   About half of full-time farms are devoted mainly to dairy farm­ing or to beef cattle and sheep.
   
5. 
   Most of the beef animals and sheep are reared in the hill and moorland areas of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and northern and south-western England.
   
6. 
   Large-scale potato and vegetables cultivation doesn't take place on the fertile soils throughout the UK.
   
7. 
   The Government doesn't help the farming industry become more competitive, diverse, flexible, responsive to consumer wishes and environmentally responsible.
   
8. 
   The Government strategy aims to deliver short-term support to those sectors hit hardest by the farming crisis.
   

VII. Answer the questions. Begin your answers with:

There is no doubt in my mind that ... I'm absolutely convinced that ... I have every reason / ground to believe that ... I could comment on the question ... Unless I am mistaken ... I think it would be a good idea if we ... It might be worth looking into ... I'm inclined to think that... I'm certain that... I definitely think that...

1. 
   What is the role of agriculture in the life of the country?
   
2. 
   What does farming in Great Britain depend on?
   
3. 
   What part of the population is engaged in agriculture?
   
4. 
   What do you know about specialization in the UK's agriculture?
   

1. 
   How well is the country supplied with various agricultural pro­duce?
   

5. 
   What are the most important crops grown in Britain?
   
6. 
   Why has the total area of fodder crops fallen in recent years?
   

2. 
   What do you know about a long tradition of sheep production in the country?
   

7. 
   Where is dairy-farming concentrated?
   

10. What is the role of the UK's Government in the development of the agriculture industry?

VIII. Translate into English.

Сільське господарство в Об'єднаному Королівстві ще ніколи не було таким процвітаючим, як сьогодні. Завдяки величезним успіхам в розвитку галузі, споживачі мають доступ до різноманітного асортименту продуктів, вироблених вдома, їхня якість набагато вища, ніж була раніше.

Вітчизняні продукти дешевші, ніж будь-коли, завдяки зро­станню продуктивності виробництва, що лише декілька років то­му здавалося неможливим.

Нескінченний потік вдосконалень у рослинництві та розве­денні худоби добре кредитується, урожай зернових культур 2000 р. був одним з найвищих.

Виробники молочної продукції, яєць, бройлерів і свиней де­монструють надзвичайну продуктивність. Крім того, нинішня ре­волюція в біотехнології і генній інженерії означає, що успіхам не видно кінця.

Об'єднане Королівство — світовий лідер в обох галузях, що, безсумнівно, має величезний потенціал для вирішення багатьох проблем сільського господарства.

Нові зернові культури, стійкі до засухи, могли б зробити за­сушливі райони придатними для культивації, інші — могли б протистояти шкідникам, мати кращі властивості для зберігання та давати вищі врожаї.

Нажаль, ці технології та продукти, зокрема, генетично змі­нені організми, викликали великі суперечки в Об'єднаному Ко­ролівстві і в Європі в цілому. Більшість споживачів не довіря­ють таким новим продуктам, не будучи впевненими в їхній без­пеці, в той час, як прихильники чистого навколишнього середо­вища побоюються, що небезпечні матеріали можуть ввірватись в сільську місцевість ще до того, як будуть завершені відповідні дослідження.

Однак, якщо ці побоювання будуть подолані, нинішні наукові дослідження матимуть величезні компенсації.

IX. Render into English.

За останнє десятиріччя у Великобританії вимоги до вироб­ників сільськогосподарської продукції значно зросли. Перед ни­ми стоять завдання виробляти продукцію без застосування штуч­них добрив і пестицидів, на землі, що, протягом щонайменше трьох років, зареєстрована як екологічно чиста. Звичайно, на такій землі і врожаї будуть нижчі, і затрати праці вищі, але попит на таку продукцію набагато вищий.

На сьогоднішній день пропозиція на внутрішньому ринку не може задовольнити потреб споживачів, і тому більша частина (80 %) овочів і фруктів імпортується з інших країн, також як і значна частина зерна для відгодовування «чистої» худоби — во­логий клімат Великобританії ускладнює завдання отримувати ви­сокі врожаї зернових культур без застосування хімічних добрив.

X. Read and retell the following text

FUTURE TRENDS

Despite all these advances, the UK's farmers are not reaping the full rewards of the huge leaps forward in efficiency and productiv­ity. Indeed, they are struggling with some of the most difficult

conditions to have hit the industry since the Great Depression of the 1930s. one of the biggest difficulties has been the strength of the pound compared with other currencies. This penalizes UK farmers in two ways. Not only does it make their products less competitive on world markets; but subsidies are calculated on the value of the 'green pound'. When this is weak, grants rise but when the economy is booming funds dwindle. So recently, for example, subsidies for programmes such as the Arable Area Payments Scheme (AAPS) and Over 30 Months Scheme (OTMS) have fallen considerably thanks to a revaluation based on the strong currency. On the other hand, grants for programmes such as the Sheep An­nual Payments Scheme (SAPS) are higher because of lower market prices across the EU.

Like all farming within the EU, the UK's farmers are subsidized by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). This is a major bone of contention with many other producer nations who see it as unfair state support for European agriculture that distorts global markets. Progress in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations is slow, but reform does seem to be on its way, not least because even within Europe there is a general consensus that the CAP is not work­ing as its original architects planned.

Although one of the CAP's central aims is to maintain employ­ment in rural areas, 60,500 agricultural jobs were lost in England alone between 1987 and 1997. One reason is that because subsidies are based on production, 80 % of the money goes to just 20 % of farms — usually the biggest. So, while small and family farms ac­count for 66 % of all holding, 75 % of UK farm output comes from 25 % of the holding.

The UK Government recognizes the failings of the system and is working hard to reform the CAP. The problem is that any sig­nificant change requires unanimity among the EU's member states and the structure of farming varies widely across Europe. As a re­sult, those reforms that suit one nation almost invariably disadvan­tage another. So for example, the colder, wetter nations of the EU — such as the UK — are keen to tackle the massive subsidies for edible oils, while southern countries (where olives, sunflowers and maize grow well) are much less enthusiastic. Conversely, beef premiums are of much less interest to Europe's drier, hotter coun­tries than in the cooler north where cattle naturally thrive. Never­theless, the slow eastwards enlargement of the EU and the spiraling cost of the CAP mean that there is a general consensus within the Union that reform is essential.

XI. Case — Study.

DAIRY FARMER

The Ranking family has owned and fanned Cannons Farm since 1890. Today it is the father-and-son team of John and Jason who run the 125-hectare dairy concern which is located on the Ards Peninsula on the east coast of Northern Ireland.

The area where the farm is located is surrounded on three sides by sea. Far from making conditions difficult, however, the water is a huge boost to fertility because it is warmed by Gulf Stream which flows across the Atlantic from the Carribean.

As a result the area has a mild, damp climate that is ideal for grass production and the Rankin herd is almost exclusively grass-fed. This regime not only produces excellent milk, it also helps keep farm costs down (grass works out at a third of the cost of silage and a quarter that of concentrates). The farm also benefits from well-drained land and this and the gentle weather mean the cows can stay out for most of the year, reducing heating, labour and food costs. This has allowed the Rankins to maintain their competitive edge.

Such factors are important in today's climate: «The biggest prob­lem is the strong value of the pound', says John Rankin. «Eighty per cent of Northern Ireland's farm produce is exported, half to the UK mainland and the rest goes even further afield. This means that we're potentially very vulnerable to foreign competition.'

In reality, however, the Rankins are surviving remarkably well. John says Cannons Farm has been shielded from the worst of the eco­nomic conditions by its grazing regime and the unique local selling system: 'Most of Northern Ireland's milk goes to local processors and these buy milk through an auctioning system,' he explains. 'Fortu­nately this has resulted in prices which are higher than across the rest of the UK.'

But like every sensible businessman John Rankin wants to expand by launching a new product — yoghurt. He is sure that companies regularly launch new products. In many cases, it is because their com­petitors do so, and they need to keep up and avoid losing market share. And often it is simply to diversify, to avoid being overdepen-dent on one product. John is convinced that the product will have a ready sale because he has a good reputation in the area and the cus­tomers will be easily switched to the new yoghurt. On the contrary, his son doesn't believe the idea is worth talking about. He isn't going to make a leap in the dark. In his opinion the market is well-saturated with dairy products of high quality and people got used to buying them. Besides, they will need some helpers to cope with the new problems.

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