Each set of tracks was followed

Each set of tracks was followed.

Tracks indicated that three or possible four puma included Acurizal (название местности) in their travels although none were wholly resident there.

We deduced movement pattern from spoor

Tracks vary in appearance depending on the individuals size, its gait, slope steepness and type of substrate. Tracks made in snow are especially subject to variation, as melting rapidly distorts and enlarges prints.

Obviously factors such as habitat, elevation, and track size serve to separate leopard and tiger in places where they are said to occur in proximity.

Tracks indicated that male had passed within 50 m of the young and its kill (добыча) the same day of the capture.

The following day we tracked the large male and captured him some 3 miles distant.

A lion abruptly changed course, sometimes retracing its route for a considerable distance (invariably it was found that another lion or family of lions was in the area).

In such a case, stones are brought by the female to serve for the levelling of the substrate surface.

This call serves as a location-signal that helps the parents to assess the general condition of the brood and enables them to locate their young readily after they have left the nest.

These mutual displays serve as a prelude to mating.

It may happen that the neighbouring male or an unpaired male from the floating population is carefully watching all such events.. Such a bird will try to seize the opportunity to approach the female at a moment when she is ready to copulate.

Some males who happen to be late arriving in spring are forced to make do with the territories of worse quality, i.e. small and devoid of large vertical surfaces.

Breeding pairs of Northern Wheatear not infrequently occur close to human settlements.

Much more rarely, another form of polygyny occurs – so-called polyterritorial polygyny.

смена change, rotation

~ пола sex reversal

сменять change, ~ по очереди rotate см. превращаться

сменятьс take turns

These overlap zones are used by the neighbours in turn.

The high-arctic region has a severe polar climate with minimal snowfall.

Only in some years the snowfall is much greater.

Due to small precipitation in winter and to the frequent storms, which cause the snow to drift, large areas of the northern polar regions are quite bare of snow in winter.

The general belief that the regions of the northernmost Arctic are perpetually covered by snow and ice is therefore far from the truth.

хрустящий ~ squeaky snow

снежный покров snow cover, snow mantle

событие event, occurrence

The occurrence of polyterritorial polygyny is described for a number of the wheatear species.

Lizards spend much of their time basking.

Woody and forest-like vegetation only occurred on the fringes of perennial rivers, although improverished (угнетенный) and degraded forms were present along temporary watercourses, dongas and where outcrops (of dolerit dikes) brought groundwater (грунтовые воды) to the surface.

Large areas of hillslopes in the False Upper Caroo are also covered by associations of A, with dominant association of B on gentle slopes, and of C on the steeper hillsides. These are all quite open associations with abundant grass coverage, interpersed with dwarf shrubs, low trees and patches of shrubs, all representing a sclerophyllous evergreen savanna shrub.

In the western part these woods belong to the type A, whilst further eastward the type B dominate. These are not tall woods, and average height vary between 4 and 10 m. On the numerous steep (dolerite) hillsides found between points A and B, mainly two associations predominate.

This "forest reserve" is primarily grassland: montane from 1 300 to 1 800 m. with subalpine and alpine communities above 1 800 m.

соответствие accordance, conformity, compliance, correspondence, concordance

в ~ in accordance

In this species, males have a rather contrasting colour pattern while females look much duller, in accordance with the idea of protective type of coloration.

These differences between the species named obviously correspond to a progressive lowering of the stimulus threshold-value from species to species.

The Black Wheatear roughly matches in size the Rufous-tailed Rock Thrush.

соотношение полов sex ratio

Despite a tendency towards females among juveniles, and males among yearlings and adults, sex ratios within each age class did not significantly deviate from unity, but at the population level there were significantly more adult males than reproductive females.

differential sex ratio between the members of each sex contemporaneously in an effective breeding condition

These three forms a, which constitute the so-called Oenanthe picata complex, should probably be treated as megasubspecies.

In summer these insects constitute an important part of the birds diet

A considerable proportion of wheatear food is made up of ants, especially during the early spring, and in summer too these insects constitute an important part of the diet.

Individuals of this species feed mainly on rather large grasshoppers, which comprise up to 75% of all prey captured.

составной compound

состояние state, condition

изменять ~ render; активировать, активизировать render active

By rendering female coalitions ineffective, males contribute to a combination of factors that limit the benefits of female philopatry.

The karyotype in all wheatear species studied consists of 41 chromosome pairs.

The ground cover generally consists of poor, very low grassy vegetation, usually quite discontinuous, with many patches of bare stony, gravel or clay soil.

An important part of the species diet is composed of berries, especially during the autumn.

Living apart for all but a few hours per year. Activity fields of individuals are widely scattered and spatially isolated from one another.

Social limitations are those placed on individuals (e.g. breeding opportunity) by the local social environment rather than by ecological factors per se.

carnivorous animals, predatory animals, predators, preying animals, sarcophagous animals, raptorial animals, beasts of prey, birds of prey

Peripheral parts of neighbouring territories can overlap to some extent, and these overlap zones are used by the neighbours in turn.

The high frequency of male interventions in conflicts between females, and the extent to which males limit the effectiveness of female coalitions, are outstanding features of mountain gorilla society.

стигмергия stigmergy

стимул stimulus (мн. . stimuli), stimulant, cue

~ - реакция stimuls-reaction S-R см. стимулировать, вызывать реакцию

безусловный ~ unconditioned stimulus

внешний external stimulus, cue

вызванный ~ provoked

взаимного общения social stimulus

генерализация ~ generalization

знаковый ~ sign stimulus, releaser

индуцирующий ~ inductive stimuls

интенсивность ~ cue strength

мотивирующий ~ motivating stimuls, priming stimulus

пороговый ~ threshold stimulus, liminal stimulus

сверхнормальный supernormal stimulus

суммирование ~ heterogeneous summation

условный ~ conditioned stimulus

фильтрация ~ stimuli filtering, stimulus selection

стимулирование stimulation

внешнее external stumulation

внутреннее internal stimulation

стимулировать stimulate, excite; вызывать реакцию elicit reaction

страдать suffer

In northern Europe clutches and broods of the Northern Wheatear suffer greatly from fox predation.

The feeding mechanism of each species are designated to enable it to feed in the most profitable manner, without undue waste of energy in handling the food, or ingesting food that is not worthwhile.

The limit to expenditure, of energy or time, constraints upon animal behaviour.

The first step in developing of a theory of optimal foraging-decision rules is to choose a goal for optimal predator.

Because of the habit of repeated breeding attempts, nests with eggs are found from late February to the end of June.

For the lesotundra (forest-tundra) a widely used and very appropriate name is the subarctic zone.

The amplitude of this movements varieswith intensity.

When bird curious or excited, tail is frequently fanned and flicked up and down or swung from side to side through long curve—when tail moved to left, left half fanned while right half closed and vice versa when moved to right.

rapid flicking of the wings away from the body and back of it

The curious nodding of the head which is only slightly modified from the ordinary bobbing of most iguanid lizards, is frequently a part of courtship.

Неуверенные Faint, il-directed

опускать (напр., голову, хвост) bent downward, lower

опускать крылья drop wings

отворачивать голову от партнёра turn head aside (head-flaging display)

отставлять , поднимать крылья extend wings

This behavior ranges from stationary half-extended wings, through flashing half-extended wings, to the wings being extended so far that their tips are in front of the birds beak and may touch the ground. While in the latter posi­tion, the predator bird may jerk its entire body toward the prey while keeping its feet stationary.

The long, stringy barbs, which extend outward from the sides of the bird, seem to be constantly in motion. They also serve to embellish (акцентировать) wing and body shuffling and shaking—actions that are rather frequent, as in the birds of paradise.

In most intense expression, flight intention includes various bobbing and twisting movements of the body , which oriented in the horizontal plane, with tail being flipped rapidly down and up or rotated quickly from side to side in synchrony the wing flicks

The female will let the male come near, but tolerates his presence for only a few seconds, during which time he can perform only a fragment of his courtship-display.

Social tolerance was exhibited by females and young during the period of juvenile dependency.

Schaller found resident tiger in India tolerant of transient, but speculated that some males might defend a territory against other males.

территориальное поведение territorial behaviour

Males establish their individual territories far apart, so that the territories of breeding pairs thereafter are widely scattered and spatially isolated from one another.

The distinction between defended and home-range territory cannot always be maintained in practice,

Since our knowledge of the natural behaviour of animals under the varied natural conditions of their lives is often insufficient to enable us to say to what extent others are excluded from the territory.

The unqualified term “territory” is therefore useful for such cases, and it can readily be qualified as home-range or defended as our knowledge justifies.

Etkins remark appear apt to this discussion, and I have adopted his usage of the term territory.

No defence of a territory was noted in study and transient lions, both males and females, used these territories freely.

If a territory were actively defended against an intruder then the resident would have to apprroach the intruder to either frighten it or to forcefully drive it from the area.

Both males and females invariably visit these sites and ordinarily travel much the same route, whether hunting or seemingly just traveling.

Some permanent stations occur in each territory.