З. Г. Прошина Передача китайских, корейских и японских слов при переводе с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский

Упражнение 15

Beijing remains the cultural heart of the nation. Located in the vicinity of the famous Tian’an Men Square are the Forbidden City, formerly the residence of the emperor and now a museum open to the public; the Mao Zedong Memorial Hall; and the Museum of the Chinese Revolution (1950). Beijing was also the location of the famous “Democracy Wall” and its so-called big-character posters that were significant (until officially banned in the late 1970s) in the expression of public opinion about governmental policy shifts after Mao’s death in 1976. The Summer Palace, the Temple of Heaven, the Ming dynasty tombs, and the Great Wall are all near Beijing; these great monuments of the Ming and Qing dynasties provide a cultural focus for the increasingly mobile Chinese population.⁴³

The Tao acts spontaneously and in accordance with its nature (tzu-jan). Its effect and activity are without in­tent (wu-wei), yet there is nothing that remains undone. In the phenomenal world, the Tao manifests through its power, its "virtue" (te), which all things receive from the Tao and by which they become that which they are.

All Taoists strive to become one with the Tao. This can­not be achieved by trying to understand the Tao intellectu­ally; the adept becomes one with the Tao by realizing within himself its unity, simplicity (p'u), and emptiness.

This requires intuitive understanding, which Book 22, Chapter 2 of the Chuang-tzu describes as follows: "Tao may be known by no thoughts, no reflections. It may be approached by resting in nothingness, by following noth­ing, pursuing nothing. . . . The Sage teaches a doctrine which does not find expression in words" (Chang Chung-yuan 1963). The Tao thus is realized by abiding in silence, and the way to silence is found by "letting go": "To search for knowledge means to acquire day after day; to seek the Tao means to let go day after day." In the Tao-te ching [The Book of the Way and Its Power] si­lence corresponds to the return to the source; by abiding in stillness all inner and outer activity comes to rest and all limitations and conditions fade away. This is when the ce­lestial light shines forth, allowing us to behold our true selves and realize the absolute (Chuang-tzu⁾.⁴⁴

The lowlands of the eastern region include, to the north, the Northeast and the North China plains, which have a combined area of about 270,000 square miles (700,000 square km) and are the country's two largest lowland areas. Lying to the south is the Szechwan Basin, which covers some 75,000 square miles (200,000 square km) along the upper Yangtze River and joins northeastward with the more uneven plains of the middle and lower Yangtze. The Pearl River, or Canton, Delta, the only extensive lowland along the southeastern coastal plains, accounts for much of the country's remaining lowland area. Interspersed from north to south throughout the eastern region are such highlands as the Ch'ang-pai Mountains (a series of ranges north of the Korean Peninsula), the Loess Plateau (an area of loess-clad hills), the Tsinling Mountains (a high mountain range, reaching heights of 13,000 feet [4,000 m]), and the Southeast Mountains (reaching 5,000 to 6,000 feet [1,500 to 1,800 m]). Much of northern China lies in a major earthquake zone. On July 28, 1976, a major tremor struck the city of Tangshan (90 miles [145 km] east of Peking); estimates for the number of people killed ranged from 250,000 to 665,000. The lowland floodplains experience widespread flooding; in 1959 floods in northern China left 2,000,000 people dead.

The Ch'ing dynasty, China's last, fell in 1911 and a republic was proclaimed in 1912 under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, but political betrayal and regional warlords soon left the republic in shreds. Sun's Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) attempted to reunite China. Under the military leadership of Sun's successor, Chiang Kai-shek, and with Communist participation and Soviet support, some national unification was achieved in the 1920s. Chiang then broke with the Communists, who withdrew to independent bases in the countryside and formed their own armies and administrations. Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and invaded North China proper in 1937. The Japanese occupation of most of northern and eastern China lasted until 1945.

Traditionally, China is divided into five gastronomic regions, three of which are characterized by the great schools of Chinese cooking, Peking, Szechwan, and Chekiang-Kiangsu. The other two regions, Fukien and Kwangtung, are of lesser importance from a gastronomic point of view.

Peking is the land of fried bean curd and water chestnuts. Among foods traditionally sold by street vendors are steamed bread and watermelon seeds. Vendors also dispensed buns called paotse that were stuffed with pork and pork fat, and chiaotse, or crescents, cylindrical rolls filled with garlic, cabbage, pork, scallions, and monosodium glutamate. Wheat cakes wrapped around a filling of scallions and garlic, and noodles with minced pork sauce are also traditional Peking specialties. But the greatest of all delicacies of this region is of course the Peking duck. This elaborate, world-renowned dish requires lengthy preparation and is served in three separate courses. In its preparation, the skin is first puffed out from the duck by introducing air between the skin and the flesh. The duck is then hung out to dry for at least 24 hours, preferably in a stiff, cold breeze. This pulls the skin away from the meat. Then the duck is roasted until the skin is crisp and brown. The skin is removed, painted with Hoisin sauce (a sweet, spicy sauce made of soybeans), and served inside the folds of a bun as the first course. The duck meat is carved from the bones and carefully cut into slivers. Sautéed onions, ginger, and peppers are added to the duck meat and cooked with bean sprouts or bamboo slivers. This forms the second course. The third course is a soup. The duck bones are crushed and then water, ginger, and onion are added to make a broth. The mixture is boiled, then drained, and the residue is cooked with cabbage and sugar until the cabbage is tender.

The cooking of Szechwan in central China is distinguished by the use of hot peppers, which are indigenous to the region. The peppers lend an immediate sensation of fiery hotness to the food, but, once this initial reaction passes, a mingled flavour of sweet, sour, salty, fragrant, and bitter asserts itself. Fried pork slices, for example, are cooked with onions, ginger, red pepper, and soy sauce to achieve this aromatic hotness.

The provinces of Chekiang and Kiangsu feature a broad variety of fish--shad, mullet, perch, and prawns. Minced chicken and bean-curd slivers are also specialties of these provinces. Foods are often arranged in pretty floral patterns before serving.

Fukien, which lies farther south, features shredded fish, shredded pork, and popia, or thin bean-curd crepes filled with pork, scallions, bamboo shoots, prawns, and snow peas.

To Americans perhaps, the most familiar form of Chinese cooking is that of Kwangtung, for Canton lies within this coastal province. Mushrooms, sparrows, wild ducks, snails, snakes, eels, oysters, frogs, turtles, and winkles are among the many exotic ingredients of the province. More familiar to Westerners are such Cantonese specialties as egg roll, egg foo yung, and roast pork.

Lu Xun was born Chou Shu-jen in Shaoxing in 1881. He attended the School of Railways and Mines of the Kiangnan Military Academy in Nanjing and later studied medicine, literature, and philosophy in Japan. He returned home a committed foe of the Manchu dynasty, and, after the revolution that overthrew the dynasty in 1911, he joined the new republican government in its ministry of education. ⁴⁵

The Chinese are proudest of the tradition of historical writing that began in the Han period. Ssu-ma Ch'ien (145?-85? BC) was grand historian (an office that combined the duties of court recorder and astronomer) during the time of Wu Ti. His 'Historical Records', which took ten years to complete, established the pattern and style followed by subsequent histories. In the Later Han, the historical tradition was continued by the Pan family. Pan Piao, the father, started to bring Ssu-ma Ch'ien's 'Records' up to date. The work was continued by his son Pan Ku (twin brother of the general Pan Ch'ao) and was completed by his daughter Pan Chao, China's earliest and most famous woman scholar. Unlike Ssu-ma Ch'ien, the Pan family limited their work to 230 years of the Early Han. This was the first of the dynastic histories, subsequently written for every dynasty. Pan Chao also wrote a highly influential work on the education of women, 'Lessons for Women'. 'Lessons' emphasized the "virtues" of women, which restricted women's activities.⁴⁶

Confucius is a latinized form of the honorific title K'ung-fu-tzu (Master K'ung), given to a wandering scholar from the state of Lu in Shandong Province in northeastern China. Although little known in his lifetime, Confucius was revered as the greatest of sages throughout most of China's history. His teaching, Confucianism, was the state teaching from the beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC to the end of the imperial period in 1911.⁴⁷

Soviet President Gorbachev met with Deng in Beijing in May 1989 in their countries' first summit since 1959. The meeting normalized relations between the two countries, and in 1990 Chinese Premier Li Peng on a visit to Moscow signed a ten-year economic and scientific cooperation agreement. The next year Jiang Zemin visited Moscow to try to settle old border disputes. He was the first Communist party chief to visit Moscow since Mao in 1957. ⁴⁹

Qigong techniques are divided into two general categories: dynamic or active qigong (dong gong) and tranquil or passive qigong (jing gong). Dynamic qigong includes obvious movement. The entire body moves from one posture to another, as though performing a dance, or a posture is held while the arms move through various positions. Dong gong is the most popular kind of qigong in both China and the West. It is yang, active, yet it conceals the yin, passive. Externally there is movement, but internally, the mind is quiet, peaceful, and at rest…

There are several reasons to practice qigong. Most important, qigong is a way to prevent disease and improve health. Medical Qigong (Yi Jia Gong), … learned through books, videos, audiotapes, and from professional qigong teachers, can be practiced as a complete and independent system of self-healing…

External Qi Healing (Wai Qi Zhi Liao) is an ancient Chinese method of healing touch and a branch of medical qigong. When the qigong student is able to control internal qi flow, he or she can attempt to heal others…

In Meditative or Spiritual Qigong (Jing Gong) the student’s focus is on developing a clear, tranquil state of mind, with deeper self-awareness and harmony with nature. Some authors divide meditative qigong into two categories, Buddhist Fo Jia Gong and Daoist Dao Jia Gong, reflecting the influence of Buddhist and Daoist philosophy. The distinction between these two schools of qigong is, however, often hazy. Throughout Chinese history, Buddhist and Daoist philosophy have influenced each other. The same can be said of their qigong. Practitioners of meditative and medical qigong share a common goal of xing ming shuang xiu, “spirit and body both cultivated”, the Chinese equivalent of “a sound mind in a sound body.” Because mind and body influence each other, it is impossible to have a truly healthy body without a healthy mind and vice versa…

Today a new applications for qigong is emerging: Business Qigong. Qigong practice can help employees feel less stressed, maintain better health, and improve productivity… Perhaps cultivating qi is like managing money…⁵⁰

by David Johnson

As Asian culture becomes more popular in the United States, the ancient Chinese method of creating a harmonious environment, feng shui, is also gaining ground.

Wind and Water

Pronounced "fung shway," feng shui literally means "wind and water." Its roots are 5,000 years old. Feng shui seeks to promote prosperity, good health, and general well being by examining how energy, qi, pronounced "chee," flows through a particular room, house, building, or garden.

Feng shui considers yin, feminine and passive energy, and yang, which is masculine and hot. It also looks at the five elements - water, fire, wood, metal, and earth, and the external environment. The points on the compass, with eight separate directions - north, northeast, east, southeast, south, southwest, west, and northwest - are also important. A feng shui expert, known as a geomancer, will consult an individual's Chinese horoscope to figure out what is best for that person and use complicated mathematical calculations from the ancient I Ching, (Book of Changes), to determine what aspects of the house are out balance.

Feng shui can be used to decide the location, construction, and architectural features of buildings, the placement and style of furniture, colors and decorating schemes, and the location of plantings, paths, and other outside features. By creating a more pleasing atmosphere, feng shui has been credited with improving family communication, restoring employee cooperation, and increasing a store's sales. The principles can be applied to any style of building or decorating, not just to Chinese or Asian modes.

When China was under imperial rule, feng shui was a secret, known only to a handful of astronomers and scientists commissioned with maintaining the health, wealth, and power of the court. Imperial palaces and cities were planned according to feng shui, which became a principle of classical Chinese architecture. Beijing's Forbidden City is an example. A spectacular complex of palaces, administrative buildings, and temples arranged around a series of courtyards, the Forbidden City was the capital of China during the Ming and Qing dynasties.

But today, feng shui is available to everyone. Banks, hotels, houses, and even several new communities in Hong Kong have been planned according to feng shui. Many Chinese use feng shui to improve business.⁵¹

Followed by Warring States period, 403–221 B.C. Ch'in 221–206 B.C. Unification of China under harsh rule of Shih Huang-ti. Feudalism replaced by pyramidal bureaucratic government. Written language standardized. Roads, canals, much of the Great Wall built.

After the republican revolution (1911) authors turned away from the classical modes of composition, and many writers (notably Hu Shih and Lu Xun) advocated writing in the baihua vernacular. The change in Chinese education from preoccupation with the classic literature to scientific and technological subjects reduced mastery of the traditional literary skills as did the abolition of the civil service examinations for official posts, which had been based on a knowledge of the Four Books of the Confucian canon. The use of characters instead of an alphabet persisted, however; this made older writings accessible and permitted the Chinese, who speak widely different dialects, amounting to different languages, to communicate with one another. The use of baihua has proved especially effective in prose.

Translations of Western books frequently appeared in China, and the novelists of the republican period were greatly influenced by European writers. Among the most distinguished writers of 20th-century China are Lu Xun, Guo Moruo, and Pa Chin. During the 1930s and 40s several talented novelists came to the fore, including Mao Tun, Lao She, and Shen Ts'ung–wen, while modernist poets such as Ai Ch'ing experimented with Western–style free verse. Women writers who grew equally prominent during these decades include Ting Ling, Hsiao Hung, and Chang Ai-ling (Eileen Chang).⁵³

14

It was the Chinese tradition to have three or four generations living in the same house. If a wealthy man had many erzi, sons, and sunzi, grandsons, and managed to have wu dai tong tang, five generations sharing the same tang, the main room of a house (somewhat like an important family room), he would be considered very fortunate and win respect in his community. On the other hand, if a man had no sons, only nu er, daughters, then he presumably had done something que de, morally lacking, or mean, in his past life; so LaoTianYe, Old Heaven Master, was punishing him by giving him no sons to carry on his ancestors' name. When Chinese people quarrel, one of the very strong curses is: "ni juezi juesun," you shall have no sons and no grandsons.⁵⁴