Современные тенденции развития иноязычного образования в высшей школе

1. 
   Тимофеев К.А. О транспозиции временных форм глагола в русском языке. История языка. - Новосибирск, 1999.
   
2. 
   Warren R.P. All the King’s Men. - M., 1979.
   
3. 
   http://lingslovar.ru/234/.
   
4. 
   http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/mwc/28611/historical.
   
5. 
   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_present.
   
6. 
   http://txstate.edu/slac/Writing/documentation/present_tense.htm.
   
7. 
   Бондарко А. В. Настоящее историческое в славянских языках с точки зрения глагольного вида. // Сб. Славянское языкознание. - М., 1959.
   
8. 
   http://ksana-k.narod.ru/Book/poet/23.html.
   
9. 
   Знаменская Т.А. Стилистика английского языка. - М., 2002.
   
10. 
    http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Linguist/esper/19.php.
    
11. 
    Brinton L. J. The historical present in Charlotte Bronte's nove.ls: Some discourse functions. - 1992. Style 26(2).
    
12. 
    Бенвенист, Э. Общая лингвистика.- М., 1974.
    
13. 
    Бондарко, А. В. Лингвистика текста в системе функциональной грамматики. // Текст. Структура и семантика. Т. 1. - М., 2001.
    

“the adventures of tom sawyer” by m. twain

Furthermore, language also allows ambiguity, so that a word or a sentence can have more than one meaning. Words and meanings can change meaning according to their contexts.

As an object of our study we have taken into consideration «The Adventures of Tom Sawyer» by M. Twain. This novel provides a warm and humorous portrait of childhood and small-town life. Its mischievous hero, Tom Sawyer, is always involved in one scrape or another-to the amazement and consternation of his Aunt Polly and the rest of St.Petersburg’s adults. Mark Twain narrates Tom’s adventures with a sharp eye for the humor of each situation and also with a degree of nostalgia for the bygone days of his own boyhood. While we are absorbing into this novel we see that the most part of being sounded speech (loud and spoken) belongs to the central character Tom, so we may mark it as a «discourse». For instance, Tom’s mind was made up now. He was gloomy and desperate. He was a forsaken, friendless boy, he said; nobody loved him; when they found out what they had driven him to, perhaps they would be sorry; he had tried to do right and get along, but they would not let him; since nothing would do them but to be rid of him, let it be so; and let them blame him for consequences – why shouldn’t they? What right had the friendless to complain? Yes, they had forced him to it at last: he would lead a life of crime. There was no choice. In this context we follow Tom’s anxieties through his thoughts about ‘life’, more concrete Twain’s transforming into Tom’s attitude to adult life.

One can’t help giving heed to N.V.Hrapchenko’s work of Language personality that suggest us the following classification of four ‘elements’ of belle-letter type. They are a) reflection and traits of men’s reality, its focus on life; b) emotional attitude to the object of works; c) aesthetic perception; d) inner state upon reader’s observance; [1, 69]. According to this classification a reader deeply penetrates into the novel being allegedly Tom who involves himself in a series of famous episodes, including a local murder trial, a hunt for buried treasure, and, of course, the whitewashing of a fence - a tiresome chore that Tom transforms into a desirable occupation for various gullible assistants.

A reader can also regard the novel as a coming-of-age novel in which the episodes are linked by the growing maturity of the hero, culminating it in Tom’s ‘respectable’ advice to Huck Finn at the novel’s end. For instance, ‘Look here, Huck, being rich ain’t going to keep me back from turning robber.’ ‘No! oh, good licks, are you in real dead-wood earnest, Tom?’ ‘Just as dead earnest as I’m a sitting here. But, Huck, we can’t let you into the gang if you ain’t respectable, you know.’

One of the ways of peculiarities for Tom as the main character in this novel is to show himself as an open-hearted person to the people. For instance, Aunt Polly knelt down and prayed for Tom so touchingly, so appealingly, and with such measureless love in her words and her old trembling voice that he was weltering in tears again long before she was through. Or another example: ‘Oh, you don’t, don’t you? So all this row was because you thought you’d get to stay home from school and go fishing? Tom, Tom, I love you so, and you seem to try every way you can to break my old heart with your outrageousness’. Again we follow the close entangling the classification of belle-letter type mentioned above with the context of the central character’s inner pure deep emotions to the reality.

As for conclusion we may say that spiritual image of personality, its values, ideals, aspiration in the traits of character and in stereotypes, ways of thinking, socio-vital purposes and concrete ways for reaching them is to be a core of belle-letter type at all.
Литература

1. 
   Караулов Ю. Н. Русский язык и языковая личность. – Москва, 2007.
   
2. 
   Кохановский В.П. Философия. - Ростов-на-Дону, 2008.
   
3. 
   Chaika Е. Language. The Social Mirror. – London, 1982.
   
4. 
   Twain М. The Adventuries of Tom Sawyer. Penguin Books, 1994.
   

New information technologies increase the motivation to learning a foreign language and developing knowledge and culture of students, and in particular conditions can be effectively used in the process of teaching. In this article we will research such fact as using the presentation techniques to increase the motivation of students to learn a foreign language and how teacher can use these techniques to develop their communicative skills.

Teachers of English as a foreign language, who want to develop successful lessons faces different problems: lack of material, lack of technologies etc. Another challenge is student who does not have any motivation for lessons. According to Hammer, uncooperative and unmotivated students are a serious problem and can easily disrupt the instructional process [1, 10].

The core of the motivation’s lack is laid in the methods and techniques a teacher choose to perform the material. As Mary Finocchiaro said “Student growth depends to a large extent upon your own professional growth. In a dynamic field such as ours, no teacher can afford to remain at a standstill. We should keep up with new findings, with new materials, and with the report of teaching and learning experiences of our colleagues” [5, 199].

An important part of teaching foreign language is introducing new language features i.e. a new grammar structure or new vocabulary teachers use different methods. The way of introduction of these features is often called “presentation”. There are many different ways of presenting new language and it is important to use a variety of techniques and methods in your teaching to make your teaching process more grabbing, interesting, and effective.

Method is an overall plan for orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon the selected approach.

A technique is implementation – which actually takes place in a classroom. It is particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method [6, 40].

Presentation techniques such as sound imitation; drawing; illustration etc. are primary methods of techniques used on lessons. 10 years ago laboratory tape-recorder, phonographs, radio, closed-circuit television were widely popular with teachers. Nowadays computers and their numerous appliances and program enjoy a great value in effectiveness of teaching a foreign language.

This number of device keeps proving its effectiveness in delivering lessons. Using techniques, for example pictures, in your presentations instead of words can double the chances of meeting your objectives. But according to Leonard Bloomfield “The various ‘methods and techniques’ which have been elaborated differ greatly in the mere exposition, but far less in actual classroom practice. The result depends very little upon the theoretical basis of presentation, and very much upon the conditions of teaching and on the competence of the teacher … ”.

The basic requirement to determine the success of the work is the teacher’s ability to show his technical competence in certain phases of linguistics. Even a well-planned and well-structured presentation can almost be ineffective because of bad presentation delivery. The delivery phase can make or ruin a presentation. We represent some key factors in the successful delivery of a presentation:

1. 
   Rehearse. Practice makes for perfect performance. Many experts say that
   

2. 
   Timing. Timing is of crucial importance. Do not ramble or talk needlessly.
   

Breathing is important to continue to talk in a loud voice. Breathing can also be used to generate a pause, and to emphasize an earlier discussed point.

Rules to observe when preparing visual aids:

- Keep it simple: There is an old adage that said – “No one ever complained of a presentation being too short.” Nothing kills a presentation more than going on too long. Remember to keep visual aids simple, so that the audience can easily understand the concepts. A complicated or vague visual aid is counter-productive.

- Minimize words: Keep the amount of text minimal, to avoid the audience spending time with reading the visual aid and not listening to you.

- Use large fonts: Make text and numbers large, so that the audience can read it easily.

- List key points: Make sure that the key points are shown clearly. This will help the audience to retain the information.

- Use exact phrasing: Since the ideas are summarized into key points, there is no margin for vague or imprecise

wording.

- Prepare Handout: If you prepare handouts, along with visual aids, your audience can make notes on the handout. 

Preparing the presentation one is supposed to take into account the important elements: context, clarification of meaning, controlled practice, and picture presentation, whichever technique or method is followed. For preparing visual aids there are a great number of modern computer programs of Microsoft Office Program, as Power Point, Office Publisher, and Movie Maker with ready-made patterns.

We represent some steps which are more, or less important, to tail the presentation.

For reading or listening presentation it needs to select or create a short text which contains the target language. As the text is being used for presentation purposes, rather than as a resource for skills development, it should not be too difficult for the students. It should not contain a lot of new vocabulary or structure. The stages of the presentation are similar to those for most presentations. There should be a lead-in, interest and context. This may include some vocabulary work, particularly if there are any words in the text which the teacher feels the students need to know. There is a focus on form and meaning and controlled practice. The teacher exploits the text following stages: establish context, pre-teach vocabulary; set gist questions; listening\reading text; checking in pairs etc.

For presentation listening material it can be used the following devices: tape-recorder, CD and MP3-players, Ipods, computer etc. to make sure the students understand the material here can be used demonstrative handouts in format of slide show, notes, pictures etc. The super-technologies of our century allow us to implement entertaining-direct appliances in teaching process, and this fact can cause extra attention from students. The access to presenting resources is enriched by World Wide Web, where one can easily get any licensed educational material from special sites, book, articles etc. For listening purposes one can visit portal as You Tube, where a great range of video of wide variety of topics. The material can be easily modified and adjusted to the aims of a lesson. The video education sites with feature video, documentaries, news coverage etc.

Except downloading records for reading material or listening, teacher can prepare his own records or make a video on the theme.

For presenting reading material with use of Power Point program which is base program for slide-shows, we can use next model of delivering material:

Activity 1

The objective is forming of reading/listening skills on the theme “Food” on material of the article “Attentive Waiter” [4, 25]

Lead-in phase: presentation of vocabulary. Put down the words on a slide and make students find relations between them and then let them reconstruct the chronicle of the events. If the words are simple you can present them in the format of pictures.

Activity 2

After reading material or listening text, comprehension questions can be prepared in the way of video conference it would be more productive if the questions are asked by different people, and video clips due to capacities of the program can be installed in the presented slide-show.

Another way to introduce a new language is to use a dialogue build. A dialogue is a conversation between two people and in this activity the teacher uses the conversation to show the students the language being used in a natural way. Dialogue build presentation is set on the material of the article. The students listen to the conversation and have a try to remember and rebuild the dialogue.

In conclusion, one may say that presentation technique is not innovation in teaching process. But ways to deliver them are revolutionizing. Right technique with exact presentation can help a teacher to invent a friendly, rich atmosphere for learning foreign language. Good presentation should include such stages as rehearse, timing, personal reproach and visual aids. Visual aids can be presented by Microsoft Office Programs including Power Point. Slide-show projection is one of the popular visual aids which is considered to be more effective way in production of drills directing on development of communicative skills of students. For making presentation slides 4 stages are taken into account. The stages are purpose of presentation, theme/title, story line, design. Other programs were recruited from entertainment in academic purposes are Internet programs, DVDs, Ipods etc. Any task programmed on developing 4 basic skills as listening, speaking, reading and writing can be delivered by the means and can boost interest of students. And motivation is the main impact on progress in meeting any goal.

The native and foreign experience shows that the using new information technologies provide:

• 
  Giving a student the tool of investigation, construction, formation of knowledge about object world and active component of objective world, instrument of measuring, reflecting and influence on object world;
  
• 
  Broadening the sphere of independent activity of students on the basis of organization different kinds of educational activity (experimental research, educational-playing, informational educational activity, also activity connected with processing information, such audiovisual information), including individual, group and collective work;
  
• 
  Individualization and differentiation of educational process by means of interactive dialogue, independent choice of regime of educational activity and organizational forms of studying;
  
• 
  Forming of information culture, components of individual culture, member of information society, by means of implementation of informational-educational activity;
  
• 
  Increasing of motivation by means of computer visualization of studied objects, phenomena, managing studied objects, situations, ability to choose independently the forms and methods of teaching and learning, including playing situations.
  

As well as these processes new solutions to the problem of students level of education, based on working out and using complex of computerized testing, diagnosing methods of control and evaluating of the assimilation level.

1. 
   Hammer J. The practice of English language teaching. 3^rd ed. Harlow. - England: Longman, 2005.
   
2. 
   Edward A. “Approach, method and technique” 2^nd ed. Washington, 1993. - P. 199-202.
   
3. 
   Bloomfield L. About foreign language teaching. 2^nd ed. Washington, 1993. – Р. 40-49.
   

The Internet has become one of the most powerful tools available for teaching virtually any subject. Especially great its potential for language teaching and learning. Some 85% of the world/s electronic information is said to be in English language [11, 50]. That makes it the potential goldmine that maу be of use for teachers for developing students’ knowledge and skills. One of the effective strategies that can help teachers to integrate the power of the Web with student learning is the WebQuest strategy. Originated by Bernie Dodge and Tom March in 1995 at San Diego University, the WebQuest has gained considerable attention from educators and has been integrated widely throughout the world into curricula in secondary schools and higher education as a way to make good use of the Internet while engaging their students in the kinds of thinking that the 21st century requires. This paper describes the Dodge’s model of a WebQuest, its design process as suggested by Tom March, provides the reasons for its use in teaching and learning process and suggests some excellent sites to explore with the aim of helping teachers to master this effective instructional tool.

A WebQuest is an instructional tool for inquiry- based learning in which learners interact with resources on the Internet, develop small group skills in collaborative learning and engage in higher level thinking. Most or all of the information used by learners is found from pre-selected websites [7, 1]. A WebQuest is designed to make the best use of a learner's time, to focus on using information rather than looking for it, and to support learners’ higher level thinking skills. In other words, students use the Internet in such a manner that they learn not only to research information but to use the Internet to critically think about important issues. The key idea that distinguishes WebQuests from other Web-based experiences is that they are built around an engaging and doable task that elicits higher order thinking of some kind. It's about doing something with information. The thinking can be creative or critical, and involve problem solving, judgment, analysis, or synthesis.

To achieve its efficacy and purpose, WebQuests should contain at least the following parts, which are outlined by Bernie Dodge as critical components in a WebQuest [7, 2].

WebQuests are an inquiry-based, learner-centered, project-based approach to teaching, learning, and information inquiry that integrates the power of the Web with sound learning theory and instructional design methods, such as constructivist philosophy; critical and creative thinking questioning, understanding, and transformational learning; scaffolding; cooperative learning; motivation and authenticity [6, 1-2].

Using WebQuests in our classrooms can help build a solid foundation that will prepare our students for the future by developing a number of skills that tomorrow’s workers will need. No one can ever learn everything, but everyone can better develop their skills and nurture the inquiring attitudes necessary to continue the generation and examination of knowledge throughout their lives. For modern education, the skills and the ability to continue learning should be the most important outcomes. And this is where WebQuest can help use to meet these needs.

Writing a WebQuest is time-consuming and challenging, at least the first time. To make this process easier for teachers Tom March developed the WebQuest design process which consists of three phases that are presented below [8; 1]:

Choose and chunk the topic

It is necessary to identify a topic that is worth spending time on it and one that takes advantage of the Web and WebQuest format. The best use of the WebQuest format is for topics that invite creativity and problems with several possible solutions. They can address open-ended questions like:

• 
  How do other countries deal with learning English as a foreign language, and what, if anything, can Kazakhstan learn from them?
  
• 
  What is it like to live in a developing country such as Kazakhstan?
  
• 
  What would Mark Twain think about the lives that children live today?
  

Good instructional activities attempt to address students' needs. Envision the optimal learning outcomes for a particular unit or activity. Then compare that to the actual outcomes. The learning gap is the difference between Optimals and Actuals.

When teachers inventory their learning resources they should collect all the raw materials that COULD go into their WebQuest. Later they will need to make choices that limit their options. In terms of finding good Web sites, the following sites that lead to a huge number of interesting and useful lessons, resources, and activities can be a good starting points for exploration:

• 
  Education World- http://www.education-world.com/
  

• 
  Language Arts- http://www.mcrel.org/lesson-plans/index.asp
  
• 
  Foreign Language - http://www.mcrel.org/lesson-plans/foreign/index.asp
  

The single most important aspect of a WebQuest is its Question. The Question / Task serves to focus your entire WebQuest and helps students engage in higher-order thinking. It makes students look beyond the facts to how things relate, what is the truth, how good or right something is. In writing Question / Task Statement, Tom March suggests to consider the following things that provide higher levels of thinking:

• 
  analyzing and classifying the main parts of a topic
  
• 
  using these main parts as criteria from which to evaluate examples of the topic
  
• 
  analyzing perspectives and opinions through comparison / contrast
  
• 
  using an understanding of people's opinions to make a persuasive argument
  
• 
  analyzing how things change through cause and effect and If/Then statements
  
• 
  using if/then statements to problem solving new situations [9, 1].
  

the other three. This section requires a teacher to make a decision. The decision is, "Do you have what it takes to make a WebQuest?" Answering the questions below questions will help a teacher to elicit a positive response:

• 
  Is the Topic worth the time and effort needed to build this WebQuest?
  
• 
  Is the level of potential student cognition worth the effort?
  
• 
  Is a WebQuest the right strategy?
  
• 
  Are you excited by the available resources (both online and local)?
  
• 
  Does the Web offer so much that its use is warranted?
  
• 
  Does the Question ask something that people in the real world find important?
  
• 
  Is the answer to the question open to interpretation / argument / hypothesis?
  

The second phase of the design process is connected with shaping, outlining, or drafting. This is the time to make sure teachers have all the right pieces before actually putting them together and then up on the Web.

The main thing to do at this stage of the design process is to brainstorm all the possible transformative cognitive tasks that could be involved with the Question. In his article on active learning Dodge stresses that active learning involves putting our students in situations which compel them to read, speak, listen, think deeply, and write and that when first faced with the prospect of developing learning environments on the web, it's easy to be overwhelmed by the possibilities. To reduce the complexity of the task he suggests to chunk things out into these three domains [2, 1].

Once websites are collected they need to be sorted out. After that it is important to think about the students' background knowledge of the topic. Make sure they all start out on solid footing by doing one of three things: 1) Use learning activities prior to the WebQuest to prepare this fundamental knowledge on the subject. 2) Give each role at least one link that provides good background. 3) Engage students during the WebQuest process in some sort of "background for everyone" phase.

The easiest way to think of the Learning Task is the students' physical product. Whereas the Question identifies what will go on in the minds of learners, the Task defines how that learning will materialize. So they definitely go hand-in-hand. This is the decision aspect of this phase. Here are some questions that teachers need to answer affirmatively before moving on to the final stage:

• 
  Does what has emerged from the Web resources address learning Gap?
  
• 
  Have you specifically identified the kind of higher level thinking that will transpire in the minds of learners?
  
• 
  Do you have the right technology, time, and comfort level to support the Task?
  
• 
  Is there enough on the Web to support the roles?
  
• 
  Does the Task mirror activities in the real world?
  

The final phase of the design process is actually the easiest. Now that all the raw materials for the WebQuest are gathered it’s time to put it all together.

There’s no need to learn HTML to write a webpage. There exist a number of tools like Microsoft Frontpage, Macromedia Dreamweaver, etc. You have just simply open the WebQuest Template that is designed for this purpose [11] and begin adding your content.

Everyone loves to feel they are involved in real learning. So the main challenge is to write an engaging introduction that naturally leads into the Question / Task. After that the rest of the WebQuest is really about righting for clarity. You might try traditional attention-getters like anecdotes, examples, quotations, metaphors or scenarios to make it more engaging.

Lastly, the important item is the conclusion. Returning back in the conclusion to whatever attention-getter you used in the introduction helps learners complete the cognitive link back to that initial thinking. Research has shown that students develop cognitive skills when they talk about them. So discuss the transformative thinking the students engaged in and talk about what it was like (how it was hard, what was different, what were they used to, etc.). Finally, it's nice to include discussion of how what the students learned applies to other topics.

Scaffold Thinking

Lay out all the instructions for the phases on learning background information and developing expertise in the roles. Make the transformative thinking happen when the students come back together after learning about their roles. Now you have individual experts ready to solve a common problem. So focus on what instructions you give the group as they complete their Task (i.e., create their learning outcome). Here's where you make sure the Task elicits the desired cognition and addresses the learning Gap you identified at the beginning of this process.

Moving through this design process will bring teachers to a solid WebQuest. If they want a quick review they can use the WebQuest Designer's Checklist at http://www.tommarch.com/learning/checklist.php. Once a teacher tried out his WebQuest with students, it is suggested to spend time debriefing with them to find out how it went for them. For a more thorough check and for an assessment tool to let students see how they've done, use The Best WebQuest Rubric [3] or try a variation on the Searching for China Rubric at http://www.kn.att.com/ wired/China/rubric.html

The design process suggested by March is really helpful in designing good WebQuest. A template is also available that guides the teacher through the process of creating a short-term, single discipline [11].

Some suggestions

Before going on to WebQuests, realize that these are challenging activities for both teachers to make and students to participate in. If you are new to the Web, read Working the Web for Education to explore other Web-based learning strategies like Topic Hotlist, Subject Samplers, and Knowledge Hunts. It has been found that using Subject Samplers is often the best preparation for working with WebQuests.

Find many examples of WebQuests on The WebQuest Page or the Filamentality Database. A first suggestion is to see if a WebQuest already exists on a topic you study. Then you can adapt it to your needs.

Once you've decided to create your own WebQuest, it is suggested to use one of the interactive sites like Web-and-Flow or Filamentality. The latter is great for beginners.

If you learn best by reading, the WebQuest Design Process is the most detailed available on the Web. Finally, as you're designing your WebQuest, test out your progress with the Designer's Checklist. This could save time and heartache.

Conclusion

Teachers need to learn how to effectively use the Internet to support the teaching and learning process. They should spend time defining an information need, searching for information, and evaluating the information before attempting to incorporate it into a lesson. Being one of the effective strategies the WebQuest strategy can help teachers to integrate the power of the Web with student learning is in a way that makes sense for the New WWW. This is because WebQuests are found to be an activity that integrates the power of the Web with sound learning theory and instructional design methods and plants the seeds of change and growth so that students will internalize some of these cognitive strategies and apply them to lifelong and self-directed learning.

1. 
   Creative and Inventive Thinking. Available: http://virtualinquiry.com/scientist/creative.htm.
   
2. 
   Dodge B. Active learning on the web. Available: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/bdodge/active/ActiveLearningk-12.html, 1996.
   
3. 
   Dodge B. WebQuest rubric. Available: http://webquest.sdsu.edu/webquestrubric.html, 2001.
   
4. 
   Dodge B. WebQuest.org. Available: http://webquest.org, 2004.
   
5. 
   March T. Working the web for education: Theory and practice on integrating the web for learning. Updated 2001. Available: http://www.ozline.com/learning/theory.html, 1997.
   
6. 
   March T. Why WebQuests? Updated January 6, 2004. Available:
   
7. 
   http://www.internet4classrooms.com/why_webquest.htm, 1998.
   
8. 
   Some Thoughts About WebQuests. Available: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec596/about_webquests.html.
   
9. 
   The WebQuest Design Process. Available: http://tommarch.com/writings/wq_design.php.
   
10. 
    Uncovering the Question/Task. Available: http://tommarch.com/learning/question.php.
    
11. 
    Warschauer M., Shetser H., & Meloni C. Internet fore English Teaching. Alexandria,VA: TESOL Publications, 2000.
    
12. 
    WebQuest Templates. Available: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/webquest/LessonTemplate.html.
    
13. 
    WebQuests for Learning. Available: http://www.ozline.com/learning/index.htm.
    

Кусаинова Г.И.

Der Bock stößt ihn - Der Bock stößt j-n. Gegen den Tod ist kein Kraut gewachsen - Gegen etw. ist kein Kraut gewachsen. Dich juckt wohl das Fell – j-n juckt das Fell. Das ist nicht von Pappe – etw. ist nicht von Pappe. Er hat Einfälle wie ein altes Haus – j-d hat Einfälle wie ein altes Haus. Das spricht Bände – etw. spricht Bände. Das kommt mir spannisch vor – etw. kommt j-m spannisch vor. Die Gewohnheit wird zur zweiten Natur – etw. wird zur zweiten Natur.

Нами предлагается следующая дефиниция вышеназванного способа. Под расширением объема понятия УФ следует понимать способ образования фразеологической предикативной единицы (УФ), при котором происходит переход от обозначения определенного лица или явления в УФ к обозначению любого лица или явления. Этот способ всегда предполагает обобщение, развитие лексической абстракции у одного понятия исходной УФ, что осуществляется вследствие перехода от конкретного значения к абстрактному, от частного случая к обобщению. Свидетельством развития абстракции в дериватах является использование местоимений etwas, jemand (в любом падеже), допускающих в момент их употребления в речи любые подходящие по смыслу понятия. Данный способ ФД является ярким подтверждением тезиса о том, что одним из направлений изменения языка служит его развитие от конкретного к абстрактному. Результатом расширения объема понятия нередко является появление так называемых незамкнутых или открытых УФ. Незамкнутые УФ отмечались рядом исследователей - В. Л. Архангельским [2], О. В. Шавкуновой [3]. В немецком языке они были подробно описаны Л. Ф. Козыревой [4].

Уже известный способ ФД «Расширение лексического состава УФ» отражает количественное увеличение лексем в составе исходных устойчивых фраз. Вместе с тем при фразеологической деривации в языке возможно уменьшение количественного состава УФ. Эти два способа ФД можно объединить под общим названием «изменение компонентного состава устойчивой фразы». Для иллюстрации данного способа ФД служат следующие деривационные процессы:

Es geht Gewalt vor Recht – Gewalt geht vor Recht. Das dicke Ende kommt noch nach - Das dicke Ende kommt. Seine Aktien steigen - Die Aktien steigen. Denn bei Gott ist kein Ding unmöglich – Bei Gott ist kein Ding unmöglich. Denn unser Wissen ist Stückwerk – Unser Wissen ist Stückwerk. Du bist so blaß, Louise? - Du bist blaß, Louise. Gottes Mühlen mahlen langsam, mahlen aber trefflich - Gottes Mühlen mahlen langsam.

Изменение компонентного состава УФ определяется нами как способ появления новой УФ вследствие увеличения или уменьшения структурных компонентов исходной УФ, при котором не происходит нарушения прежних синтаксических связей между компонентами. Подчеркнем, что этот способ ФД имеет две разновидности: увеличение компонентного состава (Der Groschen ist gefallen – Der Groschen fällt sрät. Der Wunsch ist der Vater des Gedankens – Da ist der Wunsch der Vater des Gedankens. Hab‘ Sonne im Herzen – j-d hat Sonne im Herzen) и сужение компонентного состава ( Liebe deinen Nächsten wie dich selbst - Liebe deinen Nächsten. Denn bei Gott ist kein Ding unmöglich - Bei Gott ist kein Ding unmöglich. Denn unser Wissen ist Stückwerk -Unser Wissen ist Stückwerk u.a. ).

Способ образования фразеологизмов при деривационных процессах «Du sollst deinen Nächsten lieben wie dich selbst – Liebe deinen nächsten wie dich selbst. Das Denken soll man den Pferden überlassen, sie haben größere Köpfe – Überlaß das Denken den Pferden, die haben den größeren Kopf. Wie du willst Vogel, willst du nicht essen, so stirb! - Friß Vogel oder stirb! Wie einer mir tut, so will ich ihm auch tun und einem jeglichen sein Tun vegelten – Wie du mir, so ich dir. Der Kongreß macht keine Fortschritte, er tanzt – Der Kongreß tanzt» нельзя отнести ни к одному из уже известных из специальной литературы способов ФД. Его мы предлагаем назвать логически – смысловым и определяем следующим образом.

Логически-смысловой способ - это такой способ образования ФД, при котором наблюдается контаминация мысли распространенного высказывания, ведущая к выводу, краткому умозаключению.

Как показывает наш фактический материал, при ФД возможно синтаксическое переофомление УФ. Например: Die Bombe ist geplatzt - Die Bombe kommt zum Platzen. Das ist noch im weiten Feld - Das ist noch ein weites Feld.

Способ при этих деривационных процессах можно назвать функционально - синтаксическим. Таким образом, функционально - синтаксический способ образования ФД – такой способ, при котором происходит преобразование синтаксической функции того или иного компонента УФ, вызванное изменением коммуникативно-синтаксической интенции говорящего.

Среди способов образования монопредикативных УФ на основе монопредикативных УФ варьирование довольно продуктивный способ образования УФ. К продуктивным следует отнести и способ расширения объема понятия УФ, который в целом напоминает способ варьирования. Его отличие от способа варьирования состоит в том, что результатом данного способа является появление ФЕ с лексически абстрагированным компонентом, что способствует более широкому его использованию в речи говорящими. Третий способ образования УФ на базе УФ – изменение лексического состава УФ представляет собой аккумуляцию расширения лексического состава и сужения лексического состава УФ. Логически - смысловой способ ранее не выделялся исследователями. Определенное количество УФ-дериватов появилось посредством этого способа, он имеет свои особенности, следовательно, имеет право на существование. Функционально - синтаксический способ также ранее не выделялся исследователями. Отметим, что данный способ не отличается продуктивностью, но он также имеет право на существование, так как имеет свои характерные черты, к которым в первую очередь относится синтаксическое переоформление отдельных компонентов и прежних синтаксических связей между компонентами внутри исходной УФ.

Способ переразложения, свойственный деривационным процессам «устойчивая фраза - фразема» или «УФ – ФЗ» (Ich kenne meine Pappenheimer – seine Pappenheimer kennen), не имеет места при появлении УФ на основе УФ, так как следствием этого способа является появление ФЗ, а не УФ.

Уже известный из специальной литературы способ обособления части сложной УФ при деривационных процессах “УФ - УФ” является довольно продуктивным способом. Под обособлением в нашем случае следует понимать выделение одного или двух предложений из состава комплексного предложения. При этом способе две деривативные УФ могут отличаться лишь по протяженности. УФ-дериват при этом представляет собой одно из предложений сложной УФ в неизменном или незначительно преобразованном виде. Обособление части предложения из сложной УФ без изменений иллюстрируют деривационные процессы: Allwissend bin ich nicht: doch viel ist mir bewußt - Allwissend bin ich nicht. Eines Mannes Rede ist keines Mannes Rede, man soll sie hören alle beide – Eines Mannes Rede ist keines Mannes Rede. Geteilte Freude ist doppelte Freude, geteilter Schmerz ist halber Schmerz - Geteilte Freude ist doppelte Freude. Mein Name ist Hase, ich weiß von nichts - Mein Name ist Hase. Zwei Seelen und ein Gedanke, zwei Herzen und ein Schlag - Zwei Seelen und ein Gedanke. Und die Moral von der Geschicht‘: bad‘ zwei in in einer Wanne nicht - Und die Moral von der Geschicht‘. Was, meinst du, will aus dem Kindlein werden - Was will aus dem Kindlein werden?

Незначительное преобразование в УФ-дериват может внести инвертированный порядок слов: Lieb‘ Seele habe nun Ruhe, iß und trink und habe guten Mut – Nun habe die liebe Seele Ruhe. Ist ‘s möglich, so gehe dieser Kelch von mir – Der Kelch ging vorbei.

При появлении новых УФ возможно одновременное действие двух способов. При таком комбинированном спoсобе ФД обнаруживаются признаки сразу двух способов. Например: Es steht ihm an der Stirn geschrieben, daß er nicht mag eine Seele lieben – etw. steht j-m an der Stirn geschrieben. Du liegst mir im Herzen, du liegst du mir im Sinn – j-m liegt j-d am Herzen. Fremde Fehler haben wir vor Augen, unsere Fehler haben wir im Rücken – j-d hat j-n im Rücken. So lag ich, und so führt‘ ich meine Klinge – j-d führt eine scharfe Klinge (обособление части сложной УФ и одновременное расширение объема значения понятия). Denn es ist hier kein Unterschied: sie sind allzumal Sünder – Wir sind allzumal Sünder. Die Gewaltigen reden nach ihrem Mutwillen, um Schaden zu tun, und drehen ‘s, wie sie wollen - Es drehen, wie man will. Allzuviel ist stets gefährlich, es schadet selbst dem Wörtchen „ehrlich“ - Allzuviel ist ungesund (обособление и одновременное лексическое варьирование компонента).

При ФД УФ-дериват может отличаться от исходной части сложного предложения количественным составом, при этом могут наблюдаться оба вида количественного изменения – увеличение и уменьшение компонентного состава деривативно активного предложения первой УФ. Например: Fortuna lächelt, doch sie mag nur ungern voll beglücken - Fortuna lächelt j-m. Hopfen und Malz, Gott erhalt ‘s – An j-m Hopfen und Malz verloren. Leid‘ und meid‘, bist du gescheit – du bist wohl nicht gescheit. Grübchen im Backen, Schelm im Nacken – j-m sitzt der Schelm im Nacken. Goldener Kragen, nichts im Magen – j-d hat noch nichts im Magen. Уменьшение количественного состава более протяженной УФ может быть результатом отрыва одного предложения от УФ со сложной структурой, что ведет к утрате соединительных элементов двух предложений - союза, союзного слова. Примеры:

Es ist leichter, daß ein Kamel durch ein Nadelöhr gehe, als daß ein Reicher ins Reich Gottes kommt - ein Kamel durch ein Nadelöhr gehe, als daß….

Denn des Vaters Segen baut den Kindern Häuser, aber der Mutter Fluch reißt sie nieder - des Vaters Segen baut den Kindern Häuser. Eifer und Zorn verkürzen das Leben, und Sorge macht alt vor der Zeit - Sorge macht alt vor der Zeit. Laß dich nicht vom Bösen überwinden, sondern überwinde das Böse mit Gutem - überwinde das Böse mit Gutem. Und dein Verlangen soll nach deinem Manne sein, aber er soll dein Herr sein - er soll dein Herr sein. УФ-дериват по сравнению с исходной частью сложного предложения может иметь меньший количественный состав за счет элиминации элементов уточняющего характера в виде атрибутивного компонента, наречия, местоимения. Примеры: Sein Maß ist voll, er ist zur Ernte reif! – Das Maß ist voll. Fort mußt du, deine Uhr ist abgelaufen – Die Uhr ist abgelaufen. Allzuviel ist stets gewährlich, es schadet selbst dem Wörtchen „ehrlich“ - Allzuviel ist ungesund. Oh, wie lustig wir leben, es ist einfach zum Heulen –es ist zum Heulen. Es ist nichts so fein gesponnen, es kommt doch ans Licht der Sonnen - etw. kommt ans Licht.

1. 
   Денисенко С.Н. К проблеме фразеологической деривации (на материале немецкого языка). Автореферат кандидатской диссертации. - Москва, 1972.
   
2. 
   Архангельский В.Л. Устойчивые фразы в современном русском языке // Основы теории устойчивых фраз и проблемы общей фразеологии. - Ростов на /Д., 1964.
   
3. 
   Шавкунова О.В. К вопросу о формировании незамкнутых предикативных фразеологических единиц // Проблемы фразеологии и задачи её изучения в всшей и средней школе. - Вологда, 1967.
   
4. 
   Козырева Л.Ф. Некоторые виды устойчивых фраз в современном немецком языке. Автореферат кандидатской диссертации. Москва, 1968.