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At the beginning of the XXth century, problem of studying values initially interested American
social psychologists W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki, who singled out only
significant characteristics
for humans as values. They believed that each value is determined by the activity of a person and
system of their adhered certain values. Moreover, values can be created and destroyed by people
themselves, and not only in the process of activity, but also in interaction between them. Highlighting
economic, social, spiritual, religious, scientific, and other values, they included in this list of values
and human being themselves [1].
Starting from the 20-30 years of the XXth century, E.Fromm, K.Rogers, A.Maslow,
F.Kluckhohn and F.Strodtbeck, G. Allport, M. Rokeach, G. Hofstede, H.Triandis, S. Schwartz and
others took up the most active study of this problem.
E.Fromm in the work named «Flight from freedom» connects values with the needs of a person
- from their need for survival and security to the
need for self-realization, while separately
highlighting the need for a value system. He wrote the following «a system of views, values is needed
to help us navigate the world around us. The lack of values leads to spiritual death of individual from
loneliness and the lack of life meaning, moreover the connection «with some ideas, moral values or
at least social standards - and gives them a sense of community and belonging» [2]. In consequence
of the value system, a person can organize the huge number of motivation and stimulus that they
encounter throughout their life. E. Fromm believed that a person has the need to allocate certain norms
and values in accordance with which they should live. Proceeding from this conclusion, the American
psychologist marked out two categories of values - it is officially recognized and realized to which
they carried religious and humanistic values and also so-called valid, unconscious,
being generation
of a social system which are direct motives of human behavior, and that accurately structured and
forming a certain hierarchy
[2].
As psychological factors that determine people’s social behavior, he identifies values and
attitudes, and examining their relationship, concludes that values, unlike attitudes, are not only
abstract, but become the most important in people’s lives. Proceeding from the fact that human values
are rather few and organized in systems he allocated two types of values - terminal (values - the
purposes) and tool (values – the means). To the terminal, he considered the belief that some ultimate
goal of individual existence from a personal and social point of view is worth striving for this.
Furthermore, he divided instrumental values into the following groups - ethical, values of
communication,
and values of business; individualistic, conformist, altruistic; self-affirmation,
acceptance of other people, etc. Moreover, M. Rokeach viewed instrumental values as beliefs that
some way of acting or personality properties are preferable in any situation [3].
Highlighting terminal and instrumental values, he reasoned that fundamental individual values
are laid down in a distant childhood of person in the process of socialization and therefore they will
almost not be able to be changed in adulthood. In this regard, it becomes very important for him to
question how values and social behavior can change, despite their relative stability.
According to M. Rokeach, transformations of values in a hierarchical position will occur only
when a person realizes objectively existing contradictions between individual values, i.e. when a
person places himself in a state of «confrontation». Also important is the conclusion of M.Rokeach
that a change in values will occur when a person realizes the discrepancy between some values, which
leads to the formation of a dissatisfaction sense with himself. Conversely, value stabilizes when a
person is satisfied with himself and his actions. The «Methodology for studying value orientations»
proposed by M. Rokeach itself is based on direct ranking on 18 points of terminal and instrumental
values [3].
In the modern period, using this technique, many applied studies are still being carried
out, confirming that all our actions are the result of our prevailing values.
Following M.Rokeach, the S.Schwartz and W.Bilsky also divided all values into terminal and
instrumental. They attributed to terminal values those certain final states and goals of human activity
that are revealed in manifestations of faithful friendship, wealth, «peace» on Earth, etc.).
Instrumental values - they attributed the principles of human action, as well as the models and
methods of their behavior. Therefore, in particular, this type of values, in their opinion, can include
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values that are revealed in the ability to serve, willingness to forgive, respect for the elders,
the ability
to set goals independently, etc.
Based on this, he drew attention to the fact that with all differences in values taking into account
all cultures there are common values and their understanding, uniting all human society:
1) values - beliefs related to emotions, and not objective cold ideas;
2) values - human goals and behavior that contribute to the achievement of these goals;
3) values - abstract goals that are not limited to certain actions and situations;
4) values - standards or criteria that guide the choice of action mode or the assessment of people
and events;
5) values - system of value priorities, ordered in importance relative to each other.
Basis on the motivational types of values allocated to scientists are motivational goals
determined by the need of biological organism to be an individual, the need for coordinated social
interaction and the need of group for survival and well-being.
In all three countries, a pathway model tested with traditional values predicting mental health
mediated by social support and modern values.
As the study showed, traditional value orientations
were strongest in China, followed by Russia and Germany. Modelling conducted during the study
with structural equations confirmed the hypothesis of mediated effect concerning mental health on
value orientations in general. Traditional value benevolence presupposes social support, while
modern value self-direction presupposes only - sustainability. The study concluded that value
orientations are a sensitive tool for empirically describing intercultural differences. Systematization
and analysis of the study findings proved that personal value orientations are significant predictors of
mental health. Thus, a study of personal values has
Thus, the Czech psychologist has proved the hypothesis that the influence of values on traits
largely occurs at a conscious level and has a cognitive basis. Moreover, it can change in the long run
and modify its polarity in response to strong confrontations with social environment, while the
strength and polarity of influence on personal traits concerning values remain stable over time [4].
Thus, the analysis of main approaches to the study concerning value
issues in foreign studies
has shown great interest in this problem. Assessment of these approaches and concepts showed that
in the context of psychology, value orientations are considered as values shared by individuals, acting
as goals of life and main means of achieving these goals and, therefore, acquiring the function of the
most important regulators on individuals’ behavior. Therefore, in psychology, much emphasis is
placed not on the study of values, as such, but on the study of value orientations, which are a special
subjective, individualized and motivated reflection in the psyche and consciousness of person,
group
of values at a particular stage of socio-political and economic development.
References
1. Thomas W. Metodologicheskie zametki / U. Tomas, F. Znaneckij // Amerik. soc. mysl' / pod red. V.I.
Dobren'kova [Methodological notes / W. Thomas, F. Znanetsky // Americ. social thought / ed. in and. Dobrenkova] (M.,
1994. - p. 335–337). (In Russian).
2. Fromm E. Begstvo ot svobody. Chelovek dlya sebya: per. s angl. [Escape from freedom. A man for himself:
trans. from English] (М.: AST, 2006. - p. 33-34). (In Russian).
3. Rokeach M. Priroda chelovecheskih cennostej [The nature of human values] // (Free Press, 1973: 20-28). (In
Russian).
4. Anýžová P. The Social-Psychological Context of Human Values: The Reciprocal Relationship between
Personality Traits and Value Orientations//Sociologický časopis / Czech Sociological Review 2017, 53(3): 393-426.
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